RedRampant.com

Celtic and Roman Wheats

2010-03-28T09:25:00.004-06:00

I wrote a short article about Iron Age and Roman wheat varieties over at my wife's gluten free cooking blog, TheSpunkyCoconut.com. I also made the above illustration to go with it. It's an Iron Age British farmstead. What do you think?

Mea Culpa

2010-02-01T22:40:00.013-07:00

Ave, everybody. Not much new here in a very, very long time. I did just finish placing all the articles into a menu up top, but I'm afraid I have no new posts to add. Back in 2000 I started RedRampant.com as a way to teach myself HTML. I figured there was no better way to learn, than doing. I had a fanatical interest in the Roman army at the time, so that was the focus of my self-taught web-design lesson. The site grew quite popular. Yet, I was not happy with the monthly web hosting costs, especially since I really wasn't adding to it very much in recent times. I am still very keen on all things ancient Rome, but my free time has been spent elsewhere the past couple years. To save money and keep the content on the web I moved RedRampant.com over to this blog format several months ago. I will continue to add new articles. I just hope you readers will forgive the sporadic nature of these additions.

I have been doing illustrations for Ancient Warfare Magazine the past couple years. If there is an interest in seeing in-progress pics I will post them here. I like to debut the completed illustration in the magazine itself. Once it's off the shelves, I might post completed images on this blog.

Last year I started FerrousLands, a hobby blog for my historic miniatures painting and tabletop wargaming. It takes a lot less time to paint and photograph a 28mm Roman miniature than it does to research a topic and carefully write a scholarly article. So, that site has been getting most of my attention. It's a fun way to express my interest in ancients. In fact, I just posted a new photo of some painted 1/32 scale Roman toy soldiers.

Since 2006 I have been researching my grandfather's outfit in World War II. I'm close to finishing a book on the subject. The writing has totally consumed all my free time as of late. I expect I will be finished by the end of this spring. The finished product will half text half photographs/illustrations, much like an Osprey Publishing or Shire Books title. Once the book is published leisure time will return, and with it new RedRampant articles.

Complete tower illustration

2010-01-12T09:33:00.001-07:00

This appears in Ancient Warfare Magazine vol III, issue 6. This magazine is now available in US bookstores, so have a look next time your browsing.

Tower Painting

2009-11-20T10:25:00.003-07:00

I just sent the final illustration to the editor. Here are two in-progress photos. You can see I moved away from Bédeoyère's Scarborough sketch. The article author didn't want crenelations on the tower walls (these weren't meant to withstand a siege). I initially wanted an isometric view from above, but in the end opted for a ground level view with another tower in the distance. Check Ancient Warfare Magazine vol III, issue 6 for the completed illustration. It was fun doing a night scene—those aren't so common.

Illustrating a Signal Tower for Ancient Warfare Magazine

2009-10-18T19:37:00.008-06:00

This week I am starting work on an illustration of a Roman signal tower. It will be part of Murray Dahm's article, "An Ancient Enigma—Solving the Secrets of Ancient Military Signaling" in Ancient Warfare Magazine Vol III, issue 6. For a reference I am using the above illustration from Guy de la Bédeoyère's The Buildings of Roman Britain. This was a 3rd century tower situated at Scarborough. All examples of such towers appear to have had a walled courtyard and outer ditch.

The appearance of the tower itself isn't ground-breaking, but Dahm's interpretation of its signal fires is a fresh concept.

I will also be illustrating some Roman military tactics for Ross Cowan's article.

Gaullic Shield Sculpture from Nîme, France

2009-10-02T09:25:00.008-06:00

I'm trying to make a habit of posting ancient shield blazons as I come across them. I hope the graphics will be of use to wargamers, reenactors, and illustrators. This Roman sculpture depicts a Gaulic shield with carnyx. I scanned this from Espérandieu's Recueil Général des Bas-Reliefs de la Gaule Romaine et Pré-Romaine. Vol I, page 297. 1908. This Roman relief of captured equipment was found in Nimes, France. Note: crescent shapes also appear on the Gaullic shields on the Arc d'Orange.

Puteoli Block Praetorians

2009-09-11T09:27:00.023-06:00

Naturally. the vast majority of Roman sculpture and artifacts reside in museums in Europe and along the Mediterranean. However, the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology holds an object of keen interest to Roman military equipment studies. The Puteoli block was carved during the reign of Domitian and depicts his Praetorian guardsmen. One carries a shield emblazoned with a very nice vine and scorpion design. The scorpio, birth sign of Emperor Tiberius, often appeared on Praetorian equipment. Tiberius was so honored because he allowed the Praetorian camp to be built in Rome, centralizing their power. No other Roman legion appear to have used the scorpion emblem. A color interpretation of this shield blazon appears in The Praetorian Guard by Boris Rankov.

The above photo of the other half of the Puteoli block is courtesy of Jasper Oorthuys. It is housed in Pergamon Museum in Berlin. Thanks, Jasper! Images of both these sections are rarely found on the internet, so I definitely appreciate your contribution!

For a detailed study of this monument see Flower, Harriet. "A Tale of Two Monuments: Domitian, Trajan, and Some Praetorians at Puteoli" in American Journal of Archaeology, Vol 105. No. 4, October 2001. pages 625 - 648.

Archaeology Journals

2009-07-18T22:55:00.000-06:00

American Journal of Archaeology This is the journal of the Archaeological Institute of America. Their back issues include numerous articles on Rome and are available online for free as PDFs!

The Antiquaries Journal is published by the Society of Antiquaries of London. The articles cover a range of ancient subjects.

Bryn Mawr Classical Review publishes timely online reviews of current scholarly work in the field of classical studies (including archaeology).

Council for British Archaeology Offers free PDF versions of archaeolgy reports.

Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies The Roman society publishes the journals Britannia and Journal of Roman Studies. Click here for an online index of Britannia volumes.

Institute for the Classical Tradition publishes Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt. ANRW presents all important aspects of the ancient Roman world.

Israel Exploration Society This archaeology society has published a number of titles of interest to the Roman military historian. Their final excavation report dealing with the Roman weapons found at Masada was published in 2007. Their journal, Israel Exploration Journal, has the occasional Roman article.

Journal of Roman Archaeology

Journal of Roman Military Equipment This is the key publication of Roman military equipment studies.

Select Roman Army books

2009-07-18T22:50:00.000-06:00

A public library can be very helpful in finding the following books. Your local branch may not have the desired book in their collection, but they can often order it for you using inter library loan. However, this can take several weeks and the loan time is frequently short. Don't forget your nearby college or university. University libraries will have the more academic hard-to-find books and journals. They probably will not allow non-students to check them out, but you can certainly read and make photocopies there.

Auxilia of the Roman Imperial Army, by G. L. Cheesman. Although this text is approaching 100 years since its first publication, it is still the defining book on Roman auxiliary forces. For a reference on the arms and equipment of the auxiliaries, you are better off going with the more up-to-date books by Peter Connolly.

The Roman Army at War : 100 BC-AD 200, by Adrian Keith Goldsworthy: A solid book on the Roman army, the legions and auxiliaries.

The Making of the Roman Army, by Lawrence Keppie: Roman armies built and maintained the borders over a period of centuries. Naturally, the tactics, equipment, organization, etc all went through changes as the empire grew older. Keppie discusses all these traits and how they related to the various time periods. A very good reference.

The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire : From the First Century A.D. to the Third, by Edward Luttak. This book is pretty much standard reading for Roman army buffs. Luttak describes the changing methods the Romans used for expanding and defending their empire. Although many Luttak's central theory that the Romans had a specific long-term plan for expansion seems doubtful to me, the book does provide a wealth of information which is extremely valuable in understanding the ways of the Roman army.

The Column of Trajan, by Filippo Coarelli. Translated to English by Cynthia Rockwell (first published in Italian as Colonna Traiana). ISBN: 8886359373. This is the BEST illustrated book on Trajan's column! Another book on the subject, "Trajan's Column: the Cichorius Plates," is better known, but the photographs are small and hard to view. I recently found a U.S. distributor for this title: Michael Shamansky, Bookseller, Inc.

Roman Military Decorations, by Valerie Maxfield - a specialized volume about all things related to Roman military awards.

Roman Military Equipment

2009-07-18T16:49:00.000-06:00

From The Punic Wars To The Fall Of Rome,

2nd Edition
Mike Bishop and Jon Coulston. Oxbow Books, 2006.

I am very much into the things of history. Helmets, swords, etc. are really quite sculptural—like art pieces. Indeed, the Metropolitan Museum of Art in NY has an entire wing devoted to armor. That is just a little aside explaining my interest in such objects. Of course, the historian’s value in armor and weapons goes beyond aesthetics. The study of Roman military artifacts informs our view in how they waged war. Typically, when archaeologist discovery the object is published in one of a number of journals. Bishop and Coulston have done an excellent job gathering the most relevant finds into one text—presenting the discoveries that have informed our present understanding of Roman arms, armor and equipment.

The official website has corrections to the published text.

Fort the Glory of Rome

2009-07-18T16:42:00.000-06:00

by Ross Cowan
This offering from Cowan stands out a bit from the typical Roman military texts. Its focus is on the hearts and minds of the soldiers. Rome's conflict with Pyrrhus of Epirus is the principle setting used to illustrate the Roman military psyche: discipline, blood-lust, honor, sacrifice, devotion to the gods, etc. Various anecdotes from throughout Rome's history of war also define these aspects. It is a enjoyable read, with a satisfying degree of detail.

The Works of Peter Connolly

2009-07-18T16:04:00.001-06:00

Peter Connolly is an archaeologist / historian with a talent for reconstructing equipment. A research fellow at Oxford in England, he is also a skilled illustrator. He is a noted authority on Roman archaeological finds, so his superb illustrations are accurate and well detailed. His profusely illustrated books are a superb reference for Roman army life. Connolly is a regular contributor to such journals as the Journal of Roman Military Equipment and Roman Frontier Studies. He has also appeared in the occasional TV Roman army documentary.

Peter Connolly wrote 3 excellent books now out of print: Greek Armies, The Roman Army, and Hannibal and the Enemies of Rome. Their contents were combined to form this much valued hardcover book, Greek and Rome at War. This is absolutely the must-have for anyone interested in the Roman army. Copiously illustrated, the book contains detailed descriptions of the armies and equipment of the Italians, Greeks, Macedonians, Romans, Carthaginians and Celts. The book was first printed in 1981. A revised edition was published in 2006. The book is extremely valuable to the Roman military scholar. Indeed, this book provides a reference for a majority of articles on this site!

The Legionary describes the life of a typical Roman soldier by following the career of a historic figure from Trajan’s Dacian Wars, Tiberus Claudius Maximus. Connolly’s text and ample illustrations are all based on the latest archaeology. Unfortunately, specific sources for his illustrations are not given, nor is there a bibliography. These books were intended for a general audience. Connolly's scholarship can be trusted, but it would have been nice for interested readers to know the specific sources for the author's arcaheological illustrations.

The Cavalryman continues the career of Maximus into the cavalry. Sadly, this book, The Legionary, and The Roman Fort are all out of print. I was fortunate enough to buy them when they were only $12, but now they used copies are selling for quite a bit more. I'm hoping they are combined into a single volume, as with Greece and Rome at War.

The Roman Fort examines life in a Roman fort by using the Housesteads on Hadrian’s Wall as an example.

The Holy Land is in the same style as the above titles, this volume details what life was like in the Roman province of Judea (modern day Israel and Palestine). The book illustrates the introduction of Rome into the affairs of the Jews, the reign of King Herod, the Roman governor Pontius Pilot and Jesus, up to the late 1st century Jewish War with Rome

The Salisbury Hoard

2009-07-18T15:55:00.000-06:00

by Ian Stead. Tempus Publishing, 1998.

Stead’s sleuthing reclaims a national treasure and exposes the illicit trade of antiquities.

Metal detecting is a very popular pastime in Britain. For the most part, these hobbyists are considerate to the landowner and are helpful to archaeology. They bring their finds to the attention of local museums and split any earnings with the land owner. Objects of silver or gold are given up to the government. Sadly, there are also metal detectorists who are not so law-abiding. They are treasure hunters motivated only by the money their finds can bring them. In the 1980s a pair of ordinarily honest metal detectorists found a great hoard of Bronze Age and Iron Age objects. They gave in to temptation and sold the objects into antiquities trade. The artifacts were split up, sold and re-sold. If it were not for the work of Ian Stead, this collection and its history would be lost.

In 1988 Ian Stead was the Deputy Keeper in the Dept. of Prehistoric and Romano-British Antiquities at the British Museum. An antiquities dealer introduced him to a set of miniature bronze shields. They were authentic, yet unprovenanced. The British Museum bought them, but Stead was very curious about their origins. The Salisbury Hoard details the detective story that was his attempt to establish provenance and re-unite the scattered hoard.

Chapters 1-3 give an account of his hunt for the original finders of the hoard, tracking the find-site. Chapter 4 describes the British Museum’s excavation of the site, which confirmed the provenance of the treasure. Chapter 5 de-tangles the web of finders, dealers and collectors into which the hoard fell. Chapter 6 recounts the trial of the metal detectorists. 7 describes the Museum’s efforts to acquire the pieces. 8 explains the archaeological relevance of this hoard. Chapters 9 and 10 explain the value of provenance and the context in which archaeological objects are found. Various anecdotes are provided to illustrate.

An engaging read, Stead’s personal account guides us through a specific investigation to reach an understanding of the true value of artifacts. An object’s contribution to our understanding of the past far outweighs its intrinsic beauty.

The Dacian Wars

2009-07-16T14:18:00.000-06:00

The Dacians were related to the ancient Thracians. 1st century AD Greeks called the Dacians "Getae" which was the name of the Thracian tribe that had lived in Dacian lands in past generations. Our understanding of the appearance of the Dacians comes primarily from Trajan's Column and the Adamklissi Monument, which both show scenes of Trajan's campaigns against the Dacians. In these monument's reliefs the Dacians are seen wearing trousers, cloaks and caps. At the base of Trajan's Column various types of armor and military equipment are depicted. They carried swords, spears and shields similar to their Gallic and German neighbors. An interesting weapon of there's was the Falx. This great 2-handed curved blade was capable of cleaving off an arm or leg with ease. The weapon was so powerful that the Romans felt it necessary to add to the armor worn by their legions (iron greeves and segmented arm guards came into use, as well as the ad hoc reinforcing of helmets with two crossed strips of metal). Due to their close proximity to the Guals and Germans, it seems reasonable to assume that Dacian style may have shared a preference for bright colors, plaids and patterns.

TIMELINE OF CONFLICTS
Emperor Trajan himself wrote a memoir of his campaigns in Dacia, though that work has not survived to this day. Cassius Deo gave a few pages to the in his Histories, 67-68 Here is a brief overview

85AD The Dacian king Decebalus begins raids in the Roman province of Moesia (south of the River Danube).

86AD Roman Emperor Domitian sends his prefect of the Praetorian Guards, Cornelius Fuscus, to retaliate. It ends in disaster for the Romans. Two Legions are destroyed.

88AD Tettius Julianus leads a new attack on Dacia. The battle of Tapae is an important win for the Romans. As the Dacians near total defeat, the Romans make a hasty treaty and pull out to quell of the revolt of the Roman general, Antonius Saturnius, on the Rhine. There was also trouble with the German tribes in that area. According to Cassius Deo, the treaty was extremely embarrassing for the Romans. They had to pay the Dacia large sums of money, and they had to send captives of artisans and military craftsmen. Domitian strengthens the defenses on the Roman side of the river and divides the Province of Moesia into two: Lower and Upper.

96AD The unpopular Domitian is murdered. Nerva takes his place and adopts Trajan as his heir.

98AD Trajan is made emperor at Nerva's death.

101AD Drawn by its vast supplies of gold or revenge, Trajan prepares for a new war with Dacia. He raises 2 new legions (XXX Ulpia and II Tajana) to replace the ones Cornelius Fuscus lost in 86AD. 13 legions were made available to invade Dacia. Trajan moved in tot he country meeting little resistance. As winter sets in the Romans fortify what they have conquered and set up camp. Decebalus leads a sneak winter attack into Lower Moesia. It's repulsed.

102AD Trajan headed toward the Dacian capitol, Sarmizegetua, laying siege to Dacian fortresses on the way. When he finally reaches the capitol, Decebalus sues for peace. He is allowed to remain King under Roman direction. Trajan leaves some troops behind and returns to Rome with the title "Germanicus."

105AD After secretly rebuilding his forces, Decebalus wipes out the Roman garrisons in Dacia. Trajan returns and defeats the Dacians again. Decebalus tries to flee into the mountains, but he tracked down by Roman cavalry and commits suicide before he can be captured. Sometime after 106AD Dacia is made a Roman province, however there remained a section of Dacia to the mountainous north never occupied by Rome.

References:

1. Dio Cassius. Roman History. Volume VIII, Books 61-70.
2. Peter Wilcox. Rome's Enemies (1): Germanics and Dacians
3. Peter Connolly. The Legionary
4. Peter Connolly.The Cavalryman

Dacian Helmets

2009-07-16T10:05:00.001-06:00

Dacian helmet design was influenced heavily from the East. The more wealthy soldiers often wore Phrygian style helmets. These were characterized by a foreward facing knobby projection at the top. Their allies, the Sarmatians, were fond of dome-shaped helmets formed from several strips of metal welded together. Presumably, this helmet could also have been worn by the Dacians. The helmets above are depicted on the the base of Trajan's Column.

Related Reference
Check out the journal, Acta Terrae Septemcastrensis. Often discussing Dacian finds (including helmets), this Romanian publication includes many English language articles. Free PDFs are on their website!

Dacian Shields

2009-07-16T10:02:00.000-06:00

Our knowledge of what equipment the Dacians and their allies used comes primarily from the sculpture on Trajan’s Column in Rome. The true accuracy of these sculptures is open to question. It is assumed that Dacian warrior was armed similarly to the celt. He carried a (probably flat) wooden shield 4 to 5 feet tall. It was usually oval in shape, based on the celtic design. It was covered in leather (to protect the wood from warping). Riveted to the center of the shield face there appeared an iron or bronze umbo. This protected the shield hand. This metal boss could also be used offensively when punched. The Dacian shield graphics appearing on Trajan’s Column to have a vine and floral theme.

Related Reference
Check out the journal, Acta Terrae Septemcastrensis. Often discussing Dacian finds, this Romanian publication includes many English language articles. Free PDFs are on their website!

Greek Helmets

2009-07-12T11:59:00.001-06:00

Corinthian

Of all the Greek helmets, the Corinthian is probably the most recognized. It was probably first developed in the 8th century BC. Each helmet was custom made for the man who was to wear it. It took a great degree of skill to fshion the helmet from one single piece of bronze. Early in the helmet’s career there were two types of crests. One layed flush on the crown arcing from front to back. The other type was worn high, curling forward at the top. Around the 5th century BC we see representations of Spartans wearing crests transversly, arcing from one side to the other. This was probably a sign of high rank. When not in use, these helmets could be pushed back to rest on the head. This is the position common in greek art as it allows the viewer to see a face. The helmet itself was very strong, but it had some serious drawbacks. The small eyeholes seriously impaired the wearer's vision AND left him practically deaf. After the 5th century the use of the Corinthian helmet fell out of use in favor of more lightweight, open-face types.

Illyrian

This greek helmet originated in the Peloponese in the 7th century BC. Unlike the corinthian, the Illyrian was made in two pieces joined together at the crown. The crest always ran from front to back, flush to the helmet in order to help protect the seam. There were also two ridges running along either side of the seam to provide extra protection.

Chalcidian

“Chalcidian” is a modern name refering to the type of vases on which this helmet is often seen. It was used mostly by the western Greeks and Italians. This took the basic form of the Corinthian helmet, rounded the cheek guards and formed openings for the ears. They often were made with ram heads embossed on the cheek pieces. The temple and forehead were also often deocrated with relief lines.

Pilos

Greek armorers found much inspiration in civilian hats. The pilos helmet is based on a felt hat of the same name. The Spartans are said to have started wearing this helmet in the mid 5th century. It was soon after adopted by other Greeks of the Peloponese. This particaular example has attacments for a crest.

Petasus
The petasus was a wide-brimmed hat worn to keep the sun away while working in the fields, traveling etc. The form of this hat was also appeared as a helmet. It was worn by Greek horsemen and lt. Infantry in the 5th century. Interestingly enough, some of these helmets were covered in fabric to give the appearnce of being nothing more than a cloth hat. This is indicated by helmets that have bee found with holes for stitching.

Beotian

The Beotian was especially favored by the cavalry because of its great visibility. It was a popular helmet, used also by the Romans until the end time of Republic.

Thracian
Developed in the 5th century BC, the Thracian was based on a form of cap worn in... you guessed it, Thrace. The cap was made of a soft material most often rising to a forward pointing peak. It was re-enforced by a band or hem running across the head. The helmet repeated this from in bronze.

Phrygian
During the mid 4th century BC there was a return to more heavy armor. This Phrygian began showng up during this time and soon became the most common helmet used by the Macedonians and the Greeks.

References
1. Connolly, Peter. Greece and Rome at War. Greenhill Books, 1998.
2. Sekunda, Nicholas. The Ancient Greeks. Osprey Publishing, 1986.

My Gentleman Scholar's Research Guide

2009-07-10T14:19:00.006-06:00

Are you a classical history buff searching for greater detail, but you’re not sure where to get it? Here you will find my guide to accessing the same resources as the professional scholars. My guide speaks from my own experience in the US, but the process is applicable to other countries.

After reading lots of general history books I have become very interested in uncovering specifics. This has lead me to the primary sources: reports from archaeological digs, conference procedings, and specialized monographs. Generally, these are intended for fellow academics. Existing outside the academic world, it can often challenging for me to acquire these publications. However, the search itself can be fun, and it is always satisfying to finally gain access info at the end of the hunt. “History buff” is an appropriate term for a guy like me, but I much prefer “gentleman scholar.” It’s Much more charming, wouldn’t you say?

FINDING the RIGHT BOOK for YOUR AREA of STUDY
The BIBLIOGRAPHY
A good place to start is the general history book. A look through the bibliography can direct you to more specialized texts. For instance, In Ross Cowan’s Roman Legionary, 58-BC-AD 69 he briefly describes the military decorations awarded to Roman soldiers. Little more than a page is devoted to this, but if you look in his bibliography you will see a reference to an entire book on the subject, The Military Decoration of the Roman Army, by Valerie Maxfield. Books written to a higher academic standard than Opsrey Publishing’s titles will have foot notes citing the references for each of the author’s statements. These citations are often specific to the page number of their source, making it all that much easier for you!

BIAB The British and Irish Archaeological Bibliography is an online catalog exclusively featuring archaeology publications.

Bryn Mawr Classical Review publishes timely reviews of current scholarly work in the field of classical studies (including archaeology).

Roman Army Talk has a handy References and Reviews section, and a number of archaeologists and authors frequent the forum.

Universities: Check univeristy websites for class reading lists. The authors of those books you want are often university professors. Their biography often appears on the university website, along with a publication list. Their contact info is also often listed. Alot of authors have their own website. I don’t advocate pestering them, but if you do... for Pete’s sake keep your question short and specific! They’re usually busy grading papers and don’t have time for uneducated queries like, “How did the Roman legion fight?”

Journals and Newsletters: Archaeology magazines and journals typically have a new book review section. The websites of archaeology associations often have a free downloadable newsletter, also with book reviews.

HUNTING DOWN a COPY
The LIBRARY
Once you know the specific book you’re after, then the first place you should go is your local library. If they don’t have it (and they probably won’t), you can request it through interlibrary loan. Basically, your library will look through the holdings of nearby lending libraries. When your book arrive you may see that is came from 2 or 3 states away. This process varies somewhat from place to place. In Maryland I could easily request a book online. The books always came at no cost. Here in Colorado I have to actually go in the library in person and hand-write a request form. Sometimes the holding libraries here charge a fee to ship it to my local branch. If the lending library has too steep of a fee, you can also try requesting photocopies. This photocopy request can be made through your library’s inter library loan process OR you can try contacting he holding library directly. In general, I have found librarians to be more than happy to help. Tracking down your hard to find text is an engaging challenge—a welcome respite from their routine requests for the new Tom Clancy novel.

Another option is to visit a nearby university library. Typically, you can only check out books if you pay a yearly fee. However, you can make all the photocopies you want, and you can request their books through your local library’s inter library loan. I used to go to the University of Maryland library quite a bit. On one occasion I had a rather amusing encounter with the librarian. I had emailed a request to put a book on hold. It was L’Arc d ’Orange, by Robert Amy—a french monograph about the Roman triumphal arch near Orange, France. When I told the librarian at the desk that this book was waiting for me she asked me for my “student ID.” “Oh, I’m not a student,” I replied. Assessing my apparently young age she questioned, “Are you an assistant teacher?” “No,” I said. “Then what are you?” she asked puzzled. “I’m just a guy” I said. Why would anybody read this stuff if they didn”t have to for a class, right?

There’s a great online catalog, World Cat, that searches libraries all over the world.

When making an inter library loan I often use this catalog to tell the librarian where copies of the book can be found.

JOURNALS
If you are looking for a journal article see JSTOR. This is an online database of with scans of print journals. You need to pay a subscription fee to use it from home, but most universities have their own subscription. You can visit a university library and print out your article at no cost.

PUBLISHERS
Sometimes you want for a really hard to find publication. No library near you has it, and it’s too expensive to buy. SOMETIMES if you contact the publisher they are nice enough to photocopy the appropriate pages for you. This is especially true if the publication comes from a small passionate institution. Local archaeological clubs, non-profit groups, museums, and various institutions often publish a journal or put out books. These people are excited about their study and are happy to share information. For instance, I was looking for a 1977 article about Fowl in Iron Age Britain appearing in the World Pheasant Association Journal. After no luck with libraries or book sellers I contacted I emailed the WPA. The president himself emailed me copies!

BUYING the BOOK
After borrowing a book, you may like it so much that you want a copy for your bookshelf. Or maybe you can’t find your publication in any local library. You may even consider buying a book, making some copies and then selling it again. There are many book sellers out there, but I have listed only those which I have used.

AddAll is a site that will search the inventories of used book sellers. This site is good for finding out of print publications. It is also useful to find titles from your favorite author (or vice versa). I have often used this site to figure out other books that might pertinent to my research.

AbeBooks is another source for out of print books. The website is a collection of third party sellers. You pay AbeBooks, they pay the seller and the seller send you the book. My only caveat is if you don't see your book within 30 days, make sure you initiate AbeBooks return/refund process. I once ordered a book that was coming from Germany. A month went by without seeing the book, but I assumed it was simply delayed in customs or something. After another month went by it was still missing and too late to get a refund!

Amazon.com is another excellent source for books. It is also a place where you can sell your used books.

Hadrian Books is the exclusive distributor for British Archaeological Reports (B.A.R.). They also sell used books from a variety of publishers.

ILAB is the International League of Antiquarian Booksellers. They are especially useful in finding long out of print publications.

Oxbow Books is a highly regarded publisher and bookseller based in England. If you live in North America the site will direct you to the David Brown Book Company. Oxbow carries “everything on Archaeology, Prehistory, the Classical World, the Middle Ages, Egyptology, Near Eastern studies, and related Environmental and Heritage topics.” Oxbow can be a bargain because they often have damaged book at a reduced price.

TRANSLATING FOREIGN TEXTThe French, Germans, Spanish, Dutch, etc. are as interested in their ancient past as the Brits. To read their texts Google has a brilliant language translation service. You can type in entire pages in French, German, Spanish, etc. and it will translate your text into your native tongue.

If you use an Apple computer, download the language widget. This widget brings Google’s translation service to the convenience of your computer’s desktop.

Roman Military Standards

2009-07-08T10:51:00.000-06:00

The Romans utilized a number of different standards in battle. These standards served a function similar to the battle flags carried by more modern armies. The Romans used standards in conjunction with the horn (cornu) to coordinate commands. As well as being utilitarian, these standards held a semi-religious significance. The practice of the standard bearer wearing an animal skin may be related to the standard’s role as a spiritual object. It was a tremendous dishonor to loose one to the enemy, especially the eagle standard of the entire legion (the aquila). Here I have listed the officers charged with carrying these dfferent standards. The illustrations I drew myself using Osprey Military books as reference for armor, uniforms, and standard appearances. Only fragments of Roman standards survive, so historians rely on sculpture and written accounts.

Aquilifer:
During the early Republic the eagle, wolf, boar, horse, and boar were used as the standards of roman legions. In 104 BC the consul, Marius, made the aquila (the eagle) the universal standard used for each of the legions. There was one officer in each legion charged with carrying the aquila. An aquilifer could strap on a round parma into battle rather than a larger shield, as his hands were already full. Judging from sculpture, the aquilifer of the elite Praetorian Guard wore a lion skin rather than the bear or wolf skin typically worn by the legionary standard bearers. (see left illustration, top)

Draconarius:
The draco was predominantly a cavalry standard originated by the Sarmations. It made its way into the Roman armies when Sarmations were used as auxiliaries in the early 2nd century AD. Wind flowed though the bronze dragon mouth and billowed out the cloth tail much like a modern wind-sock. (see left illustration)

Imaginifer:
The imaginifer carried a standard with an image of the emperor. After Augustus the emperor began to be regarded as divine. This is when the imagio came into use. It was carried only in the leading cohort. (see first, illustration top image)

Signifer:
Each cohort of the legion had its own standards besides the aquila. A signifer carried a signa. (see middle illustration, top image)

Vexillarius:
This typically red or purple flag was suspended from a crossbar which was attached to a pole or lance. It carried the name and/or emblem of the legion. It could be used by infantry or cavalry. (see last illustration, top image)

Roman Medicinal Herbs

2009-07-07T22:43:00.000-06:00

Foiled by my attempts to take up backyard beekeeping, in the spring of 2007 I became interested in growing herbs. While doing the requisite research I was pleased to see a connection to the ancient Romans. The history of herbal medicine has close ties to the Roman military. Pompey the Great is credited with bringing a wealth of herbal knowledge to his country. Roman soldiers benefitted from effective herbal medicines and also followed ineffective (apart from the possible placebo type effects) superstitious herbal treatments. There are three main sources for Roman herbal knowledge—Pedanius Dioscorides 40-90AD, Gaius Plinius Secundus (Pliny the Elder) 23-79AD and Galenos (English: Galen, Latin: Claudius Galenus), c. 129 - 200 or 216 AD. All men had direct dealings with the treatment of trauma and wounds.

Dioscorides was a Greek physician who served with the legions of Emperor Nero. His tour of duty brought him from Germany to the Middle East. He published De Materia Medica (On Medicines) in 78AD.

Pliny was informed by his time in the Roman military. He served as a tribune in a Roman legion in Gallia Belgica and as a prefect of an auxiliary cavalry unit at Xanten (Castra Vetera) in Germania Inferior. Pliny’s Historia Naturalis (Natural History) speaks much about the medicinal properties of herbs and other plants. Vol. 12-19 discuss botany. Vols. 20-27 focus on medicinal herbs. Pliny attributed Roman knowledge of herbs to the research and writings of Mithridates of Eupator (120-66BC). This Pontic king was defeated by Pompey in 66BC. When his royal treasures were looted Mithridates’ herbal encyclopedia came into the hands of Pompeius Lenaeus, the freedman of Pompey. The victorius general returned to Rome with this vast collection of herbal knowledge.

Galen, a Greek physician, gained much insight into the human body while treating the gladiators of Pergamene (modern Turkey). His skill eventually lead to his appointment as court physician to Emperor Marcus Aurelius.
Galen was a prolific writer of medical texts. Interestingly, many of the herbal remedies touted by these ancient writers have been confirmed by modern science.

Listed bellow are some of herbs that are likely to have been used on the infirm Roman soldier. Note: the latin names listed for these herbs are modern scientific names, not those used by the Romans themselves.

Yarrow (Achillea millefolium)
Homers Illiad has a scene where Achilles treats the wounds of his friend with Yarrow. This well-read story would have ensured this treatment was common knowledge in the Roman world. Modern research shows that Yarrow is an astringent, is anti-inflamitory and speeds healing. (McIntyre)

Garlic (Allium Sativum)
Galens wrote of Garlic as a cure-all. This herb is antibacterial, antiviral, antiparisitic and antifungal.

Marshmallow (Althea officinallis)
Marshmallow pollen has been found at Bearsden Fort. Pliny suggested this herb can be used as an ointment or a cough syrup. (Alcock)

Marigold (Anethum graveolens)
Used as a fever reducer, marigold was grown in southern Europe.

Uva Ursi (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi)
Galen wrote that he used this herb’s leaves to treat wounds and stop bleeding. (Castleman)

Taragon (Artemisia dracunculus)
Pliny suggested tarragon as a way to prevent fatigue from physical exertion. The Roman soldiers were well acquainted with long marches. Perhaps some used tarragon to invigorate themselves.

Borrage (Borago officinalis L)
High in calcium and potassium, Borage leaves can be used to treat inflammation and bruises. Roman-era Borage has been found in the South Downs of England. (Alcock)

Hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis)
Hyssop was considered protection against the plague (McIntyre). Although it would not protect the user from deadly disease, volatile oils found in Hyssop are useful at treating the coughing associated with colds and the flu. (Castleman).

Chamomile (Matricaria Chamomilla and Anthemis nobilis)
Pliny recommended Chamomile as a cure for headaches, kidney, liver and bladder ailments. (Castleman)

Horehound (Marrubium vulgare)
Pliny and Celsus (a 2nd century Greek writer) suggested horehound as a treatment for coughs. At the Roman fortress at Carpow (Perthshire, Scotland) an amphora was found with the Greek word for horehound (prasion) written on it. Aprently, Leg. VI was using medicated wine used as cough syrup. (Alcock)

Parsley (Petroselinum Crispum)
Many herb books state that gladiators ate this herb before a fight to promote strength, cunning and agility. Some add that the Roman soldiers did the same. However, I have yet to see any citation to confirm this story.

Plantain (Plantago major, minor, lanceolata)
Wound healer, poison antedote

Blackberry (Rubicus fruticosus)
Dysentary has always been a problem to armies. Pliny reccomended drinking a decoction of blackberry leaves and bark to treat diarrhea. Chewing the leaves was supposed to cure bleeding gums. Blackberry leaves contain high levels of tannins - an astringent that can indeed control diarrhea and bleeding gums. These tannins would also be useful in treating war wounds. The controlling body in Germany that regulates drugs endorses blackberry leaf as a treatment for diarrhea. (Castleman)

Thyme (Thymus vulgaris)
There was a belief in the Roman world that sleeping on thyme could cure melancholy. There are many confirmed health benefits to consuming thyme (it treats coughs and aids in digestion). Of course, sleeping on it could offer only a placebo type effect. However, it is interesting to consider its use. As with today’s soldiers, Roman troops deployed away from home for years on end could suffer from depression. The Roman army was perhaps not very sympathetic to this problem, yet the treatment was known.

Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecurn)
The cavalry would have likely made use of this herb. Fenugreek was widely used in the ancient world as a food for sick horses and cattle. Some modern veterinarians use the herb to encourage sick livestock to feed. Roman physicians prescribed fenugreek to people suffering from fevers, respiratory and intestinal troubles. Modern researchers have not found fenugreek to have any effect on fevers, but it is recognized as anti-inflamitory.(Castleman).

Fenugreek is mentioned in Josephus' The Jewish War. The besieged Jews in Jerusalem added the plant to the scalding liquid that they poured on the Roman attackers. The plants gelatinous fibers made the scaling ladders slippery and difficult to climb!

Stinging Nettle (Utrica dioica)
Some herb books include an intriguing story in the history of the herb. They often state that nettles were first brought to Britain by Julius Caesar’s invading army. The plant’s stinging needles were supposedly used by the Roman troops in cold climates to create a warming sensation on the skin. Although Pliny does mention nettles as a food source, there is no evidence to suggest legitimacy to any part of this story. Neither its use as a skin-warmer, nor its arrival in Britain are discussed in classic texts. The story was written by an English scholar of Elizabethan times, William Camden, and is apparently purely conjectural.
References:
1. Alcock, Joan. Food in Roman Britain. 2001.
2. Boon, H. and Smith, M. The Complete Natural Medicine Guide to the 50 Most Common Medicinal Herbs. Robert Rose, Inc. 1994.
This text is a excellent resource for learning the effectiveness of medicinal herbs. Unlike many other herb books, this text cites studies and explains the science.

3. Castleman, M. The New Healing Herbs. Rodale, Inc. 2001.
This book comments on the historic use of herbs (Greeks and Romans), unfortunately it does not cite specifically sources.
4. McIntyre, A. The Medicinal Garden Henry Holt and Company, Inc. 1997. Same comment as for Castleman.
Jashemski, W. A Pompeian Herbal: Ancient and Modern Medicinal Plants. University of Texas Press, 1999.

The Vexillum (Roman flag)

2009-07-07T22:29:00.000-06:00

When a detachment of soldiers was separated from a legion the resulting unit marched under a special banner, the vexillum. Vexilla were a standards, much like the aquila (eagle) or signa, yet their use was much more limited.

In a military emergency—barbarian incursions, civil war, etc.—it was necessary to move troops to the troubled area. Moving an entire legion had number of problems. It was time-consuming, and the men did not like breaking connections with the locals. Most importantly, leaving the legion's home-base made their sector of the frontier dangerously un-manned. Starting in the mid-first century AD, detachments of troops from a number of nearby legions were deployed to the trouble spot, rather than moving a whole legion. A "vexilation" ranged in size from 1,000 - 2,000 men. The men might not return to their legion for several years. This practice was especially common in Flavian times. (Keppie)

The vexilla was also used by the legionary cavalry and alae. It seems this banner was employed on a regular basis, contrasted with the legion's occasional use.

The vexillarius (Fig. A)
The man who carried the vexilla was the vexillarius. The legionary vexillarii probably made use of the smaller parma as their shield. In the auxiliary cavalry each unit known as a turma was commanded by the vexillarius. (Dixon and Southern)

Construction
Only one example of vexilla has ever been found—the 3rd century example from Egypt (fig. B). This was made of linen. The banner cloth was found alone, but by looking at sculpture we can tell that it hung from a horizontal bar which was attached to a pole. The horizontal bar often had straps with pendants dangling on either side of the cloth. The pole was often topped with a spear head. This spear point could be a simple leaf shape or more decorative. A sculptural piece, such as the goddess Victoria, might also appear atop the pole.

Decoration and Color
The Egypt vexillum (fig. B) was decorated with Victoria (godess of Victory) dominating the globe. In the corners can be found the gamma motif (named after the Greek letter which looks like an upside down "L"). These gamma figures are also seen on the vexilla of the Adamklissi monument (fig. A). The name of the legion could also appear on the banner. This is born out by a number of carvings. (fig. C). The historians Tacitus (in The Histories 2.85) and Suetonius (in The Twelve Caesars, Vespasian 6) both make mention of the leader's name written on the banner. Although there is no direct evidence, it is possible that the legion's emblem may also have appeared as a design.

Suetonius (Augustus, 25) wrote that the general, Agrippa, recieved a blue banner from Augustus. The vexillum found in Egypt is red cloth. The vexillum depicted in the fresco at Dura Europos is also red (a color plate of this Terentius painting can be seen in James, p.xxv).

FIGURE NOTES
Fig. A
Vexillarius depicted on the Adamklissi monument.

Fig. B
Intact vexillum from Egypt, probably 3rd century AD. Dimsnsions: .47m x .5m (Dixon and Southern)(Connolly, p.219)(Bishop and Coulston, p. 185-186, 188)(Rostovetzeff) Connoly wrote that it is currently housed in the Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia. This may be an error. Others place it in Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts in Moscow.

Fig. C
Sculptural relief of vexillum on a stone tablet left by Leg. II Augusta at Benwall. Benwall was a fort on Hadrian's wall built during the reign of Hadrian.

Fig. D
Vexillum depicted on Trajan's Column, Rome.

Fig. E
Vexillum relief from Bridgeness. (Bishop and Coulston, p. 146, illustration after Bishop)

Fig. F
Vexillum relief from Corbridge. (Bishop and Coulston, p. 146, illustration after Bishop)

References:
1. Bishop and Coulston. Roman Military Equipment, Second Edition. Oxbow Books, 2006.
2. Connolly, Peter. Greece and Rome at War. Greenhill Books, 1998.
3. Dixon and Southern. The Roman Cavalry. Routledge, 1992.
4. James, Simon. Excavations at Dura-Europos, 1928-1937. Final Report VII. The Arms and Armour and Other Military Equipment. British Museum Press 2004.
5. Keppie, Lawrence. The Making of the Roman Army. University of Oklahoma Press, 1998.
6. Rostovetzeff, M.I. 1942 "Vexillum and Victoy" Journal of Roman Studies 32. p.92-106. Note: I have not yet seen this article, but I believe it has a detailed account of the vexillum found in Egypt.

Auxiliary Shield Blazons

2009-07-07T22:11:00.000-06:00

The latin term, clipeus is often used by modern historians to describe the flat oval shield carried by the Roman auxiliaries. However, this is not appropriate. The Roman applied the name clipeus to circular shields such as those carried by the ancient Greeks. Scutum was the general latin word for "shield," but there does not appear to be a specific word for the oval shields used by the auxilia.

The one monument that depcits the greatest number of shield design is Trajan's Column. The sculpture was created at the very hight of the Roman Empire and its army. The shields on the column represent a very specific time in Roman history, but their symbolism could be applied to anytime in early to mid imperial history. Lino Rossi, a modern historian, conveyed his ideas on the symbolism in his now out of print book, Trajan's Column and the Dacian Wars. I present a streamlined version of his concept here:

Numbers 1-4 were probably units granted Roman citizenship for valor. 4-8 were units raised from Roman citizen volunteers. He bases this hypothesis on the fact the these shields show Jupiter's eagle and lightning bolts—just as seen on the legionary scuta.
9-18 Are shields probably from units that were awarded the title torquata.

19-30. Various auxiliary designs. Note the rectangular shield carried by an auxiliary (30.). Rossi thought this had special significance, but it was probably just an error on the part of the sculptor.

The wings and thunderbolt design was almost never seen on the non-citizen auxiliary shields. The few times that it did appear could be explained by attributing those instance to auxiliaries who were awarded citizenship or those units who were not citizens, but served the emperor directly. (such as the emperor's bodyguard)

The wreath design is very common on auxiliary shields on Trajan's Column. A wreath (or cown) was awarded to a general who retuned from battle with victory. There were also a number of military decorations awarded as crowns. It can be guessed that whe this design was painted on a shield it meant that particular unit had recieved an award for some great victory.

References:
1. Greece and Rome at War, by Peter Connolly.
2. Rossi, Lino Trajan's Column and the Dacian Wars.

Late Roman Shield blazons

2009-07-07T15:21:00.000-06:00

For this subject I really must defer to Luke Ueda-Sarson’s website. He has excellent scans of the Notitia Dignatum housed at the Bodleian library in the UK.

Starting sometime around the 3rd century, the Roman Legion ceased being purely "Roman" in that the soldiers were primarily recruited from foreign tribes. The names of the legions from this time bear out this fact. However, a tribal name like "Cornuti," for instance, did not mean that only Carnutes were in that legion. Men from different tribes found themselves mixed together.

Due to logistical reasons, the soldiers were not issued standard uniforms. The men were given an allowance to buy their own clothing and armor. To give uniformity, the troops of a particular legion probably all had the same color helmet crests and shields. Shield blazons (graphic designs) were recorded in a document used by Roman administrtors called the Notitia Dignitatum. An original of this scroll does not exist. It was, however, copied by monks in medeival times. As a result the colors may not be exact.

The top shield corresponds to the Celtae Senio, a senior infantry unit from the Western Empire. The bottom shield corresponds to the Batani.

References
Phil Barker published an excellent handbook for wargamers. The Armies and Enemies of Imperial Rome features all the shields from the Notitia Dignatum plus other Late Roman shields. The line drawings are in black with a key for color.

Roman Shields

2009-07-07T14:31:00.001-06:00

Above: a sculptural relief from the Legionary fort at Mainz (in modern Germany).
Although Roman shields evolved over the years, their principles of construction remained quite consistent. The Romans used the term, scuta to reffer to their shields (the singular form is scutum). The most familiar is the rectangular scutum commonly seen in movies. There were several shield varieties used by the Roman army. Long oval shields are often depcited on sculpturs of auxliares. Modern writers often refer to this shield as the clipeus, yet this term was used by the Romans only to describe the dished circular shield carried by the Greek hoplite. The Romans had their own circualr shield known to them as the parma. It's small size made it the prefefered shield of the encumbered standard bearers.

ELEMENTS of CONSTRUCTION

Wooden Shieldboard:
In the Republic and early-mid Empire the main body of the scutum was constructed of plywood. Three layers of wood glued together with the grains at right angles for added strength. Vertical strips faced the front and the back, while horizontal strips were sandwhiched in between. In the later Empire shields were frequently made with vertical wooden planks, rather than plywood. A liquid hide glue was probably used. The resulting thickness of the plywood was roughly 1/4 to 3/8 inches. Birch and oak were frequently used woods. Presumably because they are less likely to splinter when struck. The outer and inner surface were covered with painted cloth (linen, felt, canvas) or leather.

Edge:
The outer rim of the scutum was often edged with nailed strips of bronze. Fragments of this edging have been found at numerous 1st century archaeological sites. One would think that the metal would be helpful in countering the slashing strike of an enemy's weapon. Suprisingly, the finds show the metal to be too thin (less than 1/32 inch think) to be anything more than a decorative element. Toward the third-century the more economical rawhide was stitched on, rather than the metal. The corners were most often rounded with metal edging. However, square corners were easier when using the leather. Some shields had no edging at all.

Rear:
Horizontal lengths of hardwood, were glued and nailed to the back. These wood strips were 1/2 to 3/4 inches wide and about 1/4 inches thick. One of these strips formed the handgrip in the center of the shield. It was 3/4 inches wide and 1/4 thick for most of the length. In the middle (where the hand gripped) it was 3/4 inches thick, rounded and sanded or wrapped with leather. The handgrip could also be a steel strip about 1/8 inches thick. The shield probably had carrying-strap attachments.

a decorated bronze shield boss from a rectangular scutumBoss:
A hole roughly 5 inches in diameter was cut in the center of the shield to give a place for the hand. The hole was covered on the front by a domed metal boss, or umbo. This was made of sheet iron or bronze. This dome was at the center of a round, rectangular or hexagonal metal plate (flange) which could be roughly 8 inches square to 10 x 11 inches. The entire unit was riveted into place. Judging from sculptural evidence, it appears the Romans made an effort to match up the general shape of the boss with the shape of the shield.

Blazon:

Legionary shield blazons from Trajan's Column.

References:
1. Greece and Rome at War, by Peter Connolly.
2. Roman Military Equipment by M.C. Bishop, J.C.N. Coulston.
3. In the 1960s several shield fragments were found at Masada, and published in Masada VIII, The Yigael Yadin Excavations. Israel Exploration Society. 2007.

Roman Artillery

2009-07-06T22:38:00.000-06:00

(above illustation from Trajan's Column)

To supplement their forces, the Romans used various forms of artillery. Originated by the Greeks, these mechanized weapons represent the height of ancient technology. There are actually quite alot of surviving ancient discussion on the subject. There is also a wealth of archaeological finds allowing modern researchers to accurately re-construct these machines. Perhaps the most useful writer has been Vitruvius, an engineer who served under Julius Caesar and Emperor Augustus.

The Romans used torsion machines, meaning they were powered by twisted cords. Sinew was the preferred cord material, but horse hair (and reportedly the long hair of women) was also used. When triggered, a considerable amount of energy was released and directed toward launching the projectile. There were two generla artillery types: stone-firing and arrow-firing. Unfortunately, the Latin terms used to describe the different siege machines are not fully understood. In the Republic and early Empire catapultae referred to bolt-shooters (arrow-firing). Scorpiones were the smaller mobile catapultae. Ballistae were strictly stone-shooters. Yet, in the 2nd century AD the term, ballistae, was applied to both arrow throwing and stone throwers. In the 4th century AD it appears that the arrow throwing machines were differentiated from stone throwing catapults by having the term ballistae apply only to them.

The most common artillery piece was a catapult that could fire a bolt 3-hand spans long. The scorpio (circa 50BC) threw a bolt 27 inches long (67cm).

Although the wooden bolt shafts have long since rotted, quite alot of the iron points have survived to this day. Stabilizing flights may have been made of feathers, leather, or wood. The iron points were pyramid shaped. The hand cranks at the rear were used to winch the arrow, or bolt, back to the firing position. The largest artillery filed pieces could lob a 78kg stone ball!

Both types of artillery were manned by men called ballistarii. It is not known exactly how many each legion had. Each cohort may have had only 1, or as many as 6. Auxiliary units typically did not have artillery, although it appears there were exceptions to this rule. If these non-Roman citizens should turn against the legions, the Romans did not want them to have the added firepower of artillery. In the 2nd century AD the metal-frame carroballista was introduced. It had more power and better aim than the older wooden-frame scorpion. See above illustration. It's lighter weight was an improvement over the older wooden-frame catapults by enabling it to be mounted on a type of cart.

By the 4th century AD the legions no longer had a compliment of artillery. Artillery was reserved, instead, for a few specialist artillery legions and for defending fixed positions. Artillery was also used on warships. They were often mounted on wooden towers, giving them a more advantageous angle of fire.

The Onager was named after a wild ass because of the way it kicked back upon firing. although it was powered by torsion, it was an artillery piece apart from catapultae and ballistae. It was first mentioned in writing in the 200s BC. It was most common in the armies in the mid 4th century AD. Since they were so large and slow to move the onagri were most suited for sieges. The length of the sling on the end of the arm could be adjusted to affect the trajectory of the stone.

References:
Two excellent Roman artillery books were coincidentally both hpublished in 2003. They are both available inexpensively as used books:

1. Greek and Roman Artillery, By Duncan Campbell.

2. Roman Artillery, By Duncan Campbell.

Roman Weapons

2009-07-06T22:25:00.000-06:00

The Romans were quick to improve upon ideas from other cultures. Early Etruscan arms were based on those of the Greeks. When the early Romans came in contact with the the Gauls, they took their idea for a large oval shield. When they Spanish Celts, they took their idea for a sword and so on.

Pilum: The pila (plural form) were quite unique in design. These javelins were designed to warp after impact, so they would drag down an enemy's shield, sometimes pinning two of them together. The average pilun was 1.8 meters long. It had a barbed iron shaft connected to the wooden pole in a weighted socket. A lead ball weight was added to further increase the throwing distance in the late half of the 2nd century AD. Pilum were used until the late empire.

Hasta: The hasta was the Roman trusting spear. It was carried by the units called triarii in Republic times. Marius military reforms made the pilum the standard spear carried by all legionaries.

Gladius: The Romans patterened their short swords after those of the Spanish Celts. The historian, Polybius, says they were introduced into the army during the second Punic War. This sword was intended as a thrusting weapon. This was the best way to use a sword in tight formation. Using the sword in a slashing motion would cause the soldier to open his side to attack. The gladius was replaced by the traditional long swords of the barbarians in the late empire. The below image is of the Pompeii type.

Archaeologists have catagorized these swords into three main types. The oldest, "Mainz" pattern had a blade 20 - 22 in. long, about 2.5 - 3in. wide. The edges curved inward at mid length of the blade. This was the blade carried by the soldiers of Caesar's time up till Tiberius. The later "Fulham" and the "Pompeii" types had edges which were parallel. The Fulham pattern was jus as long as the "Mainz." The blade started slightly wider at the hilt, sloping sharply to a 2 in. width for the rest of the length to the tip. The "Pompeii" had a shorter blade length, 18 - 22 in., was typically 2in. wide, and had completely parallel edges.

See photo of a Fulham sword on the British Museum website.

Spatha: The was the sword used by the cavalry. The blade was much longer than the galdius and was used for slashing. The large numbers of barbarians serving in the legions used the spatha in the late empire. It was ideal because the spatha did not require the same skill and training needed to properly wield a gladius.

Pugio: The legionaries carried a dagger starting in the 2nd or 1st centuries BC. During the rein of Augustus the gladius was carried on one belt and the pugio hung on another. By the 2nd century AD daggers were no longer issued.

Lancea: This repalced the pilum as the primary weapon of the 3rd century AD on. It was a thrusting spear.

Veruta: This was the throwing javelin of the late empire.

Plumbatae or Mattiobarbuli: These were hand-thrown lead weighted darts carried by the infantry. They were rather expensive to produce, but they allowed the infantry to effectively double as missile troops.

References:
1. Bishop and Coulston. Roman Military Equipment, 2nd Ed., Oxbow, 2006. p. 98-100.
2. Connolly, Peter. Greece and Rome at War,. Greenhill Books 2006.

Roman Helmets

2009-07-06T22:04:00.000-06:00

The armor of Rome felt a strong influence from its neighbors. Early Roman armies displayed helmets similar to those of Greece and Gaul. After Caesar conquered Gaul in the 50s BC, the Roman government employed the very skilled iron smiths of that country to produce the legions' first iron helmets. Consequently, Gallic style became prominant in this Roman equipment. In the later Empire armor was influenced by the Persians and Sarmatians.

It should be noted that the names for these helmets are not Roman in origin. Archaeologists named them based on their appearance or where they were first unearthed. In his 1975 book, The Armour of Imperial Rome, H. Russell-Robinson formulated a typology for Roman helmets, which is the standard for helmet discussions to this day. This book is out of print and difficult to find. Fortunately, a synopsis is available on RomanArmy.com

I illustrate a few of Robinson’s types bellow.

Montefortino Helmet

4th century BC to the 50s AD. The Romans copied this style of helmet from the Gauls and Celt-Iberians. The legions of Julius Caesar’s time would have worn helmets like this. There is an attachment at the top for a horsehair or feather plume. It is named for the find site, the Necropolis at Montefortino, in northern Italy. Typically bronze, the helmets of centurions were often plated in tin.

Coolus C

Late Augustan to Tiberian period. This type of helmet was very well made. The horizontal ridge along the brow was put in place to prevent sword blows from hitting the main headpiece. It is named afrer the Coolus region of the Marne River valley in present-day France where the first examples were found.

Coolus E

Late Augustan to Tiberian period. Unlike the Coolus C, this helmet was mounted with side tubes for plumes and a top spike for holding a horse hair crest. This crest would be held in a small metal box, rather than the Republican era method of gathering all the hair at one point like a paintbrush. As more advanced forms of helmet were developed the Coolus was continued to be used by auxiliaries.

Imperial Gallic H
1st century AD. The embossed eyebrow pattern at the front of the shull cap displays a Gallic influence, resulting in the name of this family of helmets. The drawing shows a Gallic H, which featured a more sloping neck gaurd then found in previous Gallic types.

Imperial Italic G
3rd century AD. The term "Italic" applies to a whole family of Roman helmets all sharing a similar style. They were used at the same time as the Gallic types. A notable difference is the fact that the Gallic embossed eyebrows are missing.

Spangenhelm
3rd century AD. (this term, Spangenhelm, is best applied to helmets from the Middle Ages.) Believed to have originally been developed by the Sarmatians, this helmet was relatively easy to produce. It was made of between four and six curved iron plates shaped into a bowl and riveted together by bands or Spangen. Adopted by the Romans in the 3rd century AD, it continued to be used by European armies well into the 7th century.

Ridge Helm
4th century AD. This helmet appeared with the end of the production of the Gallic style helmets. It consisted of two curved plates connected by a central ridge. To this cheek pieces, neck guard, and sometimes nose piece were added. Produced in a variety of styles, they were manufactured in huge quantities for infantry and cavalry. By this time the Empire found it more cost effective to reduce the armor of the legions. A helmet and a shield would, on most ocassions, be the only armor a Roman soldier would receive. The style may be from a Persian influence.

References:
1. Bishop and Coulston. Roman Military Equipment, 2nd Ed., Oxbow, 2006. p. 98-100.
2. Connolly, Peter. Greece and Rome at War,. Greenhill Books 2006.

Ancient Roman Armor

2009-07-06T09:00:00.000-06:00

After a Senate decree in 123BC the state began providing the legions with their equipment. This, of course, included armor. As the years went by new styles of protection were developed and incorporated into the legions. It was not uncommon to have the men of a legion to wear a mix of different types of armor, some newly produced and some re-issued. There was quite a range of variety of style that could be found in each armor type. For instance, in a particular legion one soldier's mail armor may have had straight edges. His comrade may have been wearing mail edged with a zig-zag cut. Still another soldier might have extra flaps of mail on the shoulders. To make things simple, I have made only one illustration for each type of armor described here.

Lorica Musculata (breastplate)
In Rome’s very early history men wore fitted bronze plate armor in the Greek hoplite style. These were well decorated with animal, mythological and chest muscle designs. No Roman examples have been found in excavations, but sculpture shows them being used by officers and emperors well into the 1st century AD. The rectangular strips dangling at the sleeves and waist in this illustration are called pteruges. Made of layered linen (or perhaps leather), they added protection to the upper arms and thighs, while conserving metal. They were probably attached to a cloth arming doublet worn under the armor.

See: J.L. Sebesta, L. Bonfante, "Costume as Geographic Indicator: Barbarians and Prisoners on Cuirassed Statue Breastplates" in The World of Roman Costume. Masidon WI. University of Wisconsin Press, 2001.

Lorica Hamata
(Loricae Hamatae plural form) translates as "hook armor," referring to the hook which fastened the shoulder straps. There is some dispute over the origins, but mail was probably first developed by the talented smiths of Gaul. Mail showed up in the Roman armies in the first half of the 2nd century BC. A typical mail coat might weigh 15 lbs. It provided excellent protection, along with great flexability. A belt was worn to bring some of this weight off the shoulders. A padded cloth garment would be worn underneathe called a subarmalis, "under-armor." Variations of this armor continued to be used well after the Roman Empire itself was gone.

Lorica Squamata
(Loricae Squamatae plural form) Literally translates as "scale armor." This armor consisted of row upon row of overlaping bronze or iron scales, which resembeled a coat of feathers when completed. Each scale was wired to those adjacent and sewn to a cloth backing. Some examples of scales have been found with embossed ridges down the middle. Incidentally, this strengthening devise mage them look even more like feathers. Lorica squamata was easier to produce and less expensive than mail armor. The downside was it was less flexible and it offered far less protection. It was especially vulnerable from an upward stab. The only archaeological exmaples date to the Imperial period, although it is seen in sculpture from Republican times.(Bishop and Coulston)

Lorica Plumata, "feather armor," was an expensive variant of scale armor. This consisted of a coat of ring mail on which small bronze scales were attached. These scales were only fastened at the top, which allowed them to rustle in the wind much like the feathers of a bird.

Lorica Segmentata,
The Latin term, Lorica Segmentata, is used to describe the segmented armor. Yet, it is not known by what name the Romans themselves used. This armor appears to have been a purely Roman invention. It may have partially patterened after the armor of certain gladiators. This armor was made up of many pieces of laminated iron all bound together with leather sraps and metal hooks, forming a very flexible and strong protection. It began to be issued to the legions during the reign of Emperor Augustus. The earliest fragments of this armor have been found at Kalkriese, the presumed site of Varus 9 AD battle with the Germans in the Teutobergen Wald. By the resign of Tiberius this form of armor had gained widespread use. It appears to have fallen out of favor after the mid second century AD.

There were several varieties of segmented armor. “Corbridge A” and “Corbridge B” were discovered by archaeologists in the UK. The primary difference between the two is the way the choulder plates fasten to the torso plates. The “Newstead” type came into use in the 1st century AD. This style differed from the “Corbridge” types in the way it reduced the number of fasteners needed to keep the armor together. There are not enough surviving pieces of the "Kalkriese" type to create a good reconstruction. Scarves (focale in latin) were worn by the men to keep the metal collar from scraping their necks.(Bishop)

See:
1. Bishop, M.C. Lorica Segmentata Volume I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour ,. Armatura Press, 2002.
2. Thomas, M.D. Lorica Segmentata 2 ,. Armatura Press, 2003.
3. Mike Thomas is working on Lorica Segmentata 3.
4. Photo of armor fittings from the lorica segmentata on the British Museum website.
5. Mike Bishop’s website discusses lorica segmentata.

Balteus
Called balteus early in the empire and then cingulum militare in later times. The mark of a soldier, belts were not meant for civilian use! When worn over chainmail, the belt helped to take some of the weight off the soldier's shoulders. In the first half of the 1st century AD it was common to wear two belts in the army: one to hold the sword and one to hold the dagger. Foot soldiers wore their sword on their right, officers on their left. In the Later Empire, this distinction fell away. The belts were rather narrow and were decorated with metal plates all the way around. The decoration of each bronze plate could be quite ornate. They featured embossed or engraved designs, sometimes plated with tin, and in rare cases coated with silver foil. The engraving sometimes had blue-black niello inlay.

During the 1st and 2nd centuries AD the belt supported several vertical strips of metal-studded leather, forming a groin guard. However, judging by the meek protection offered a few dangling pieces of leather and the ornate decoration, it may be that this apron's more important purpose was to portray a man's social status as a soldier.

Caligae
Roman military sandals used iron hob-nails as treads, rather like the cleats of a modern-day football player. These were used for the 1st and 2nd centuries AD. After that time boots became more popular.

Manicae

Segmented arm protection is seen in the Adamclisi monument reliefs. The Tombstone of Valerius Severus also depictss this interesting armor. Iron example of this armor have been found in Carlisle, England. They are dated to reign of Hardrian. (Bishop and Coulston)

Greaves

During the Republic a single metal shinguard was worn by heavy infantry, apparently only on the left leg. Although there are no Republican-era sculptures of soldiers wearing greaves, gladiators are shown wearing a single greave on their left leg. Polybius writes of the soldier’s greave only in the singular tense, implying only one was worn.(Sekunda, p8) The fighting stance of a soldier position his left leg forward, so there was no need to armor the back right leg. The soldiers on the Aemilius Paulus monument (erected after battle of Pydna, 168BC) do not show depict any greaves, so it is beleived they had fallen out of use by this time. Centurions of the Republic on through the Empire wore two greaves as a mark of distinction. The reliefs from the Roman monument at Adamklissi show greaves being worn by common legionaries. This is thought to be a protection against the Dacian’s falx, a weapon known to cleave off limbs with ease. The coverage of greaves from the Republic appear to extend up, over the knee. Those seen at Adamklissi extend only from top of the ankle to the bellow the knee. Cloth padding was worn beneath the greave to act as padding. A Linnen example of this was found at Dura Europos. Sculpture also indicate use by the cavalry.(Bishop and Coulston)

References:
1. Bishop and Coulston. Roman Military Equipment, 2nd Ed., Oxbow, 2006. p. 98-100
2. Connolly, Peter. The Legionary. Oxford University Press, 1988.
3. Connolly, Peter. Greece and Rome at War,. Greenhill Books 2006.

Numidian Warriors

2009-06-29T17:26:00.000-06:00

Numidia lay in northern Africa, in what is now Algeria. The latin name, "Numidia," means land of the nomads. As nomads, these people depended upon the horse for transportation. They were expert horsemen. The Numidian horsemen rode bareback, without a bridle. using their voice and a stick to guide ther mounts. A round shield, their stealth and agility were their only protection in battle. According to the representation in sculpture, Numidian warriors wore only a sleeveless tunic with a simple belt. Highly effective as light cavalry, the Numidian horsemen would dash up to an enemy, let lose light javelins, and then gallop away before they could be met with a counter attack. When on foot, the Numidians attacked with bows, slings or javelins. Impressed by their talent, the Carthaginians and later the Romans incorporated Numidians into their own armies.

NOTABLE ACTIONS:

First Punic War
Numidians fight alongside Carthage. 216 BC Present at battle of Cannae

Second Punic War
214BC The great Roman general, Scipio Africanus, convinces King Syphax king of the Masaesyles tribe to withdraws support from Carthage. Syphax recalls the Numidians, leaving the Carthaginians in Spain. The concerned Carthaginians encourage a rival Numidain, King Gaia of the Massyles tribe, to attack Syphax. 212BC Syphax rejoins Carthage. King Gaia's son, Masinissa, arrives in Spain with a contingent of Numidian horsemen. 206 BC The Romans form allegiance with Masinissa (then king). 202BC Masinissa provides Romans with Numidian 4,000 cavalry and 6,000 light infantry at decisive battle of Zama. Scipio's Carthaginian rival, Hannibal has 4,000 provided by Syphax.

Third Punic War
6,000 Numidians side with Carthage. Masinissa joins with Rome again.

BC 110-105 Jugurthine War
In contending for the Numidian throne, Jugurtha, allowed some Roman citizens to be killed (112BC). After much Roman inaction, the incident escalated to the point where the Senate was compelled to sent troops to confront Jugurtha. A line Roman commanders failed in subduing the Numidians. Some were bribed into inaction, others suffered mighty military defeat. In 109 one of the consuls, Q. Caecilus Metellus, was sent to deal with the situation. Gradual progress was made against the Numidians. In the hopes of a quicker resolution to the warone of Metellus' officers, Gaius Marius, was made consul and took command of the army (107BC). Progress against Jugurtha was again gradual. After constructing numerous forts and bringing in light cavalry to counter the Numidian horsemen the war was winding to a close. The conflict came to a quick end in 105 BC when Jugurtha was bertayed by his ally, King Bocchus of Mauretania. Bocchus handed Jugurtha to a general of Marius, Lucius Cornelius Sulla. Sulla then delivered the captive to Marius. The Numidian king was executed in Rome as part of Marius' triumph.

58 BC Caesar's invasion of Gaul
Caesar commanded Numidian archers, often fighting alongside men from Crete who were reputed to be the best archers in the world.

AD 17-24 Tacfarinas Revolt
Tacfarinas was a leader of a Berber tribe of the Musulamii nomads. They lived south of the then Roman Provinces of Numidia and Mauretania Caesariensis. Numidians joined in his revolt against Rome. As a former auxiliary in the Roman army, Tacfarinas was able to apply the Roman style of organized warfare to his people. This was useful in pitched battles with the Romans, but the rebels had more success with guerilla warfare. The Roman reaction was a build up fortresses, spreading forces across the province to better counter the rebels hit and run tactics. AD 24 Tacfarinas found his rebel fortress surrounded by Romans and their allied Mauretanians. He committed suicide, ending hostilities. (see Tacitus, Annals 2.52.1 - 3.74.1-4)

AD 101-105 Trajan's Dacian Wars
Numidian cavalry serve in the fight against the Dacians as depicted in Trajan's Column.

References:
1. Armies of the Carthaginian Wars 265-146 BC, by Terence Wise
2. The Making of the Roman Army: From Republic to Empire, by Lawrence Keppie

Roman Invasion of Britain

2009-06-28T22:40:00.001-06:00

Before Julius Caesar finally ended his brief occupation of southern Britain he made alliances with several of the Celtic tribes living there. One of the more powerful tribes, the Catuvellauni, was lead by the king Curnobelinus. Wishing to avoid interference from Rome, this king had kept the peace with the pro-Roman tribes. In 42AD, however, he died, leaving his 2 sons in control. Togodumnus and Caratacus proceeded to make war with the pro-Roman tribes. As a result, these tribes appealed to Rome for help. The newly proclaimed emperor, Claudius, decided this was an excellent chance to acquire new lands for the Empire and new prestige for himself.

Four legions took part in the initial invasion: Leg. II Augusta, Leg. XIIII Gemina, Leg. XX Valeria, and Leg. IX Hispana. It is possible that vexillatores (detachments) from other legions also joined. Including their auxiliary force, the Romans had some 40,000 troops gathered at the Gallic coastal town of Gesoticum. There was some delay caused most probably by the superstitious fears of the troops. When the army did cross the channel they found their landing zone (in modern-day Kent) totally undefended. It is thought that the Roman delay convinced the British that the invasion had been postponed until the next campaigning season. Or perhaps the demands of the harvest required their army to disperse. In any case, the Romans quickly took advantage of the situation, forming a beach head and pushing in to the interior. The British, avoided a pitched battle until the Roman force reached a river (most probably the Medway). At this point the British tribes set up camp opposite the Romans, secure in the knowledge that the Roman army would be unable to cross the river with much success. The Romans, however, found a ford some distance up the river and sent across Leg. II Augusta (probably commanded by the future emperor, Vespasian). While this legion was sneaking up on the British flank, a troop of Batavian auxiliary cavalry was sent as a diversion across the river in plain view of the British. This in itself surprised the Brits. The British chariot horse were unhitched, making them ideal targets for the advancing cavalry. Although they lost heir chariot arm, and Leg. II Augusta did catch them off guard, the British managed to hold their own until nightfall.

The next day Leg. XX Valeria commanded by C. Hosidius Geta crossed the river, followed by the remainder of the Roman forces. They succeeded in defeating the British forces, who fell back to the River Thames. It was normal Roman practice to follow up a defeat by sending their cavalry to slaughter the broken formations of fleeing enemy. At this point in time the land around the river was very marshy, making it very difficult for the cavalry to pursue. The overall, commander, Plautius was ordered to halt his advance in order to give the Emperor Claudius time to make an appearance and grab some glory. At his arrival, the Romans proceeded to lay siege to the Catuvellauni tribal capital of Camuldunon. Togodumnus, one of the two brother leading the tribe had been killed in the previous battle. Feeling ill-prepared, the remaining brother, Caratacus, decided to flee the Romans to Whales. It is believed that there really was not much British resistance after the fall of the capital. Claudius received the submission of eleven British kings and Vespasian and his legion were put in charge of the clean-up operations. By 84 AD, Rome had a firm grasp on the island, and would not let go until the 400's AD.

References:
1. Warriors of Rome, by Michael Simkins
2. Eagles over Britannia, by Guy de la Bedoyere
3. AD 43: The Roman Invasion of Britain, by John Manley
4. The Roman Invasion of Britain, by Graham Webster

The Varian Disaster

2009-06-28T22:37:00.001-06:00

In 9AD three entire legions were lost to a German ambush in the Teutoburg Forest. Roman Governor Quintilius Varus headed a force of around 14,000 Roman infantry, 800 or 900 cavalry and the about the same number of auxiliary contingents - about half of all the Roman forces guarding the Rhine border. Their defeat at the hands of the Cherusci chieftain, Arminius and his German warriors effectively ended any permanent Roman conquest of the lands east of the Rhine River. Thought to be cursed, the numbers XVII, XVIII, and XIX were never assigned to any subsequent legion.

The site of the horrendous battle is thought to be the area around Kalkriese, in modern-day Germany. However, this is a hotly debated assertion.

Visit the website for the Kalkriese site museum: Osnabrucker Land - Museum und Park Kalkriese

Ross Cowan’s Roman Legionary, 58 BC - AD 69, features many photos of Roman military objects found at the Kalkriese site.

See also: Schluter, W. 1999. “The Battle of the Teutoberg Forest” in J.D. Wilson and R.J.A. Wils (eds), 1999: Roman Germany: Studies in Cultural Interaction (Journal of Roman Archeology Supplementary Series no. 32) p.125-159.

(This is an academic publication, and may not be easily found outside the university library)

Cassius Dios’s History, Book 56:18-24

Scarcely had these decrees been passed, when terrible news that arrived from the province of Germany prevented them from holding the festival. I shall now relate the events which had taken place in Germany during this period. The Romans were holding portions of it ‹ not entire regions, but merely such districts as happened to have been subdued, so that no record has been made of the fact ‹ and soldiers of theirs were wintering there and cities were being founded. The barbarians were adapting themselves to Roman ways, were becoming accustomed to hold markets, and were meeting in peaceful assemblages. They had not, however, forgotten their ancestral habits, their native manners, their old life of independence, or the power derived from arms. Hence, so long as they were unlearning these customs gradually and by the way, as one may say, under careful watching, they were not disturbed by the change in their manner of life, and were becoming different without knowing it. But when Quintilius Varus became governor of the province of Germany, and in the discharge of his official duties was administering the affairs of these peoples also, he strove to change them more rapidly. Besides issuing orders to them as if they were actually slaves of the Romans, he exacted money as he would from subject nations. To this they were in no mood to submit, for the leaders longed for their former ascendancy and the masses preferred their accustomed condition to foreign domination. Now they did not openly revolt, since they saw that there were many Roman troops near the Rhine and many within their own borders; instead, they received Varus, pretending that they would do all he demanded of them, and thus they drew him far away from the Rhine into the land of the Cherusci, toward the Visurgis, and there by behaving in a most peaceful and friendly manner led him to believe that they would live submissively without the presence of soldiers.

Consequently he did not keep his legions together, as was proper in a hostile country, but distributed many of the soldiers to helpless communities, which asked for them for the alleged purpose of guarding various points, arresting robbers, or escorting provision trains. Among those deepest in the conspiracy and leaders of the plot and of the war were Armenius and Segimerus, who were his constant companions and often shared his mess. He accordingly became confident, and expecting no harm, not only refused to believe all those who suspected what was going on and advised him to be on his guard, but actually rebuked them for being needlessly excited and slandering his friends. Then there came an uprising, first on the part of those who lived at a distance from him, deliberately so arranged, in order that Varus should march against them and so be more easily overpowered while proceeding through what was supposed to be friendly country, instead of putting himself on his guard as he would do in case all became hostile to him at once. And so it came to pass. They escorted him as he set out, and then begged to be excused from further attendance, in order, as they claimed, to assemble their allied forces, after which they would quietly come to his aid. Then they took charge of their troops, which were already in waiting somewhere, and after the men in each community had put to death the detachments of soldiers for which they had previously asked, they came upon Varus in the midst of forests by this time almost impenetrable. And there, at the very moment of revealing themselves as enemies instead of subjects, they wrought great and dire havoc.

The mountains had an uneven surface broken by ravines, and the trees grew close together and very high. Hence the Romans, even before the enemy assailed them, were having a hard time of it felling trees, building roads, and bridging places that required it. They had with them many wagons and many beasts of burden as in time of peace; moreover, not a few women and children and a large retinue of servants were following them ‹ one more reason for their advancing in scattered groups. Meanwhile a violent rain and wind came up that separated them still further, while the ground, that had become slippery around the roots and logs, made walking very treacherous for them, and the tops of the trees kept breaking off and falling down, causing much confusion. While the Romans were in such difficulties, the barbarians suddenly surrounded them on all sides at once, coming through the densest thickets, as they were acquainted with the paths. At first they hurled their volleys from a distance; then, as no one defended himself and many were wounded, they approached closer to them. For the Romans were not proceeding in any regular order, but were mixed in helter-skelter with the wagons and the unarmed, and so, being unable to form readily anywhere in a body, and being fewer at every point than their assailants, they suffered greatly and could offer no resistance at all.

Accordingly they encamped on the spot, after securing a suitable place, so far as that was possible on a wooded mountain; and afterwards they either burned or abandoned most of their wagons and everything else that was not absolutely necessary to them. The next day they advanced in a little better order, and even reached open country, though they did not get off without loss. Upon setting out from there they plunged into the woods again, where they defended themselves against their assailants, but suffered their heaviest losses while doing so. For since they had to form their lines in a narrow space, in order that the cavalry and infantry together might run down the enemy, they collided frequently with one another and with the trees. They were still advancing when the fourth day dawned, and again a heavy downpour and violent wind assailed them, preventing them from going forward and even from standing securely, and moreover depriving them of the use of their weapons. For they could not handle their bows or their javelins with any success, nor, for that matter, their shields, which were thoroughly soaked. Their opponents, on the other hand, being for the most part lightly equipped, and able to approach and retire freely, suffered less from the storm. Furthermore, the enemy’s forces had greatly increased, as many of those who had at first wavered joined them, largely in the hope of plunder, and thus they could more easily encircle and strike down the Romans, whose ranks were now thinned, many having perished in the earlier fighting. Varus, therefore, and all the more prominent officers, fearing that they should either be captured alive or be killed by their bitterest foes (for they had already been wounded), made bold to do a thing that was terrible yet unavoidable: they took their own lives.

When news of this had spread, none of the rest, even if he had any strength left, defended himself any longer. Some imitated their leader, and others, casting aside their arms, allowed anybody who pleased to slay them; for to flee was impossible, however much one might desire to do so. Every man, therefore, and every horse was cut down without fear of resistance, and the . . .

And the barbarians occupied all the strongholds save one, their delay at which prevented them from either crossing the Rhine or invading Gaul. Yet they found themselves unable to reduce this fort, because they did not understand the conduct of sieges, and because the Romans employed numerous archers, who repeatedly repulsed them and destroyed large numbers of them.

Later they learned that the Romans had posted a guard at the Rhine, and that Tiberius was approaching with an imposing army. Therefore most of the barbarians retired from the fort, and even the detachment still left there withdrew to a considerable distance, so as not to be injured by sudden sallies on the part of the garrison, and then kept watch of the roads, hoping to capture the garrison through the failure of their provisions. The Romans inside, so long as they had plenty of food, remained where they were, awaiting relief; but when no one came to their assistance and they were also hard pressed by hunger, they waited merely for a stormy night and then stole forth. Now the soldiers were but few, the unarmed many. They succeeded in getting past the foe’s first and second outposts, but when they reached the third, they were discovered, for the women and children, by reason of their fatigue and fear as well as on account of the darkness and cold, kept calling to the warriors to come back. And they would all have perished or been captured, had the barbarians not been occupied in seizing the plunder. This afforded an opportunity for the most hardy to get some distance away, and the trumpeters with them by sounding the signal for a double-quick march caused the enemy to think that they had been sent by Asprenas. Therefore the foe ceased his pursuit, and Asprenas, upon learning what was taking place, actually did render them assistance. Some of the prisoners were afterwards ransomed by their relatives and returned from captivity; for this was permitted on condition that the men ransomed should remain outside of Italy. This, however, occurred later.

Augustus, when he learned of the disaster to Varus, rent his garments, as some report, and mourned greatly, not only because of the soldiers who had been lost, but also because of his fear for the German and Gallic provinces, and particularly because he expected that the enemy would march against Italy and against Rome itself. For there were no citizens of military age left worth mentioning, and the allied forces that were of any value had suffered severely. Nevertheless, he made preparations as best he could in view of the circumstances; and when no men of military age showed a willingness to be enrolled, he made them draw lots, depriving of his property and disfranchising every fifth man of those still under thirty-five and every tenth man among those who had passed that age. Finally, as a great many paid no heed to him even then, he put some to death. He chose by lot as many as he could of those who had already completed their term of service and of the freedmen, and after enrolling them sent them in haste with Tiberius into the province of Germany. And as there were in Rome a large number of Gauls and Germans, some of them serving in the Praetorian guard and others sojourning there for various reasons, he feared they might begin a rebellion; hence he sent away such as were in his body-guard to certain islands and ordered those who were unarmed to leave the city.

This was the way he handled matters at that time; and none of the usual business was carried on nor were the festivals celebrated. Later, when he heard that some of the soldiers had been saved, that the Germanys were garrisoned, and that the enemy did not venture to come even to the Rhine, he ceased to be alarmed and paused to consider the matter. For a catastrophe so great and sudden as this, it seemed to him, could have been due to nothing else than the wrath of some divinity; moreover, by reason of the portents which occurred both before the defeat and afterwards, he was strongly inclined to suspect some superhuman agency. For the temple of Mars in the field of the same name was struck by lightning, and many locusts flew into the very city and were devoured by swallows; the peaks of the Alps seemed to collapse upon one another and to send up three columns of fire; the sky in many places seemed ablaze and numerous comets appeared at one and the same time; spears seemed to dart from the north and to fall in the direction of the Roman camps; bees formed their combs about the altars in the camps; a statue of Victory that was in the province of Germany and faced the enemy’s territory turned about to face Italy; and in one instance there was a futile battle and conflict of the soldiers over the eagles in the camps, the soldiers believing that the barbarians had fallen upon them.

For these reasons, then, and also because...

Tiberius did not see fit to cross the Rhine, but kept quiet, watching to see that the barbarians did not cross. And they, knowing him to be there, did not venture to cross in their turn.

Further reading:
Check out the special issue of Ancient Warfare magazine devoted to the Varian disaster.

Related Novel:
Centurion: A Novel of Ancient Rome, by Peter Mitsopoulos. I read this novel back in 2002. The story focuses on an atypically moral*, yet tough centurion amidst the events surrounding the Varian disaster. Due to the arrogance of an inept general, Varus, 3 entire roman legions, accompanying auxiliary forces and roman colonists were wiped out by german tribes in the Teutoburg forest in 9AD. The story has grand battles with, wild beasts, barbarians, as well as with corrupt romans. The author has defenitely done his research on the subject. He provides a good sense of the cosmopolitan nature of the Roman Empire. We meet italians, Greeks, Gauls, Germans, Egyptians, etc. He gives an accurate description of the weapons, equipment, politics, prevading beliefs, etc. common to the legions in the 1st century without being forced. These historical facts flow naturally in the course of his characters’ actions and conversation, so the story is as much educational as it is entertaining.

*An anachronism in this novel is the author’s projection of modern sensibilities into the minds of his characters. For instance, compassion would not be a typical attitude of ancient man!

Battle of Pharsalus

2009-06-28T22:35:00.001-06:00

Pompey made is camp on Mt. Dogantzes about 3.5 miles from Caesar’s camp. Each day Pompey would line up his troops in front of his camp, tempting Caesar to attack on unfavorable ground. Caesar decided to shift his camp and always be on the march. This would make it easier for his men to gather provisions and it might draw Pompey into battle. When his troops were getting ready to break camp, Caesar noticed that Pompey’s men had come down the slope. Now that neither side had the favor of higher ground, Caesar ordered his men to line up for battle.

Pompey had decided to finally give battle, His plan was to use his superior cavalry to attack Caesars exposed flank (the opposite side of where the men carried their shield - the right flank) Pompey commanded around 40,000 infantry and more than 3,000 cavalry (some say as much as 7,000) and 2,000 auxiliary light infantry. On his right wing Pompey positioned Leg. I and Leg. III under the command of Labienus. These were the legions that the senate had ordered Caesar to give up before the Civil War began. The center was made up of Pompeys legions from Syria. The Cilician legion was on Pompey’s left wing with cohorts from Spain commanded by Afranius. The remainder of his cohorts were spread in along the middle of the line. All his cavalry, archers and slingers were on his left wing because the Enipeus River protected his right wing. Pompey left 7 cohorts to guard his camp.

Caesar commanded around 30,000 infantry, 1,000 Gallic and German cavalry, and 2,000 auxiliary infantry. He positioned Leg. X on the far right wing. Publius Sulla commanded this side. On the far left he put the IX combined with the VIII because they were both at half strength. Antonius (Mark Antony) was in command here. He had 80 cohorts formed up center of the line under command of Gnaeus Domitius. Seven cohorts were left to guard his camp. Caesar noticed the large build up of cavalry facing his right wing and guessed at their purpose. Afraid of being outflanked, he took 6 cohorts from the third line and placed them on the right to meet Pompey’s cavalry. As was custom, Caesar gave a pep-talk, and then signaled the battle with the trumpet.

The men of the Legion X were the first to charge. Pompey’s men did not move. He had instructed them to allow their enemy to waste energy running. Of course, Caesar’s experienced men realized this and stopped their charge about half way. They calmly marched forward and then renewed the charge. As this happened, Pompey’s cavalry surged forward and broke through Caesar’s cavalry. Pompey's men broke into smaller squadrons and were beginning to out flank Caesar’s lines. This was when the 6 cohorts were given the order to charge. None of Pompey’s cavalry withstood the attack. They did not just retreat, they bolted for the safety of the hills. Pompey's archers and slingers were left without protection and were wiped out. The 6 cohorts then continued their attack, sweeping in behind Pompey’s left flank and attacking the soldiers from behind. All the while Caesars battle hardened third line was standing still. Once Pompey was outflanked, the line charged in to replace the exhausted men already fighting. At this Pompey’s men fled to their camp. Caeser’s men continued fighting and began attacking the fortifications. Pompeys Thracians and other auxiliaries were the ones fighting back the hardest, whereas the men who had just fled ran further in to the hills, many dropping their weapons and standards. Caeser urged his men not to waste time looting, but had them instead build fortifications surrounding the hill. Pompey’s forces lost hope and surrendered.
About 15,000 of Pompey’s men had fallen. 24,000 had surrendered.

9 Legionary standards and 180 unit standards were captured. Lucius Domitius had fled into the hills, but he was tracked down and killed by Casers cavalry. Caser lost only about 1,200. Scipio escaped to make war in Spain. Labienus continued the fight in Africa. Though, they’re fight did not last long. Pompey had fled the battle and made his way to Egypt. However, King Ptolemy XII knew it was unwise to harbor such a fugitive. They had him killed and his head sent back to Caesar, upon receiving this horrible package, Caesar burst in to tears.

References:
1. Civil Wars by Julius Caesar. translated by A. G. Peskett

Caesar's Civil War Timeline

2009-06-28T22:32:00.000-06:00

56BC-April The tiumvirate of Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus is renewed

55BC Second consulship of Pompey and Crassus

53BC Crassus is killed fighting the Parthians at Carrhae

52BC Pompey is consol alone

52-50BC Tensions rise between Pompey and Caesar

49BC-Jan. 10 or 11 Caesar crosses the Rubicon. Into the de-militarized zone of Rome

49BC-Jan. 17-18 Pompey and consuls leave Rome

49BC-Feb. 21 Corfinium falls to Caesar

49BC-Mar. 17-18 Pompey leaves Brundisium

49BC-Apr. 1-3 Caesar calls the senate in Rome

49BC-Aug. 2 Caesar defeats Afranius and Petreius near Ilerda and Varo-conquers Spain

49BC-Apr.-Oct. Caesar's forces begins siege of Massilia

49BC-Aug.-Sept? King Juba defeats Curio in Africa

49BC-Oct? Defeat of C. Antonius in Illyria

49BC-Dec Caesar is in Rome starting his first dictatorship

48BC Caesar made consul for second time along with P. Servilius

48BC-Jan. 4-5 Caesar crosses with some of his army to Illyria

48BC- Spring? Caelius Rufus and Milo rebel against Caesar in Italy

48BC- Jan-July Caesar defeated in campaign of Dyrrachium

48BC- Aug. 9 Caesar squashes Pompey at the Battle of Pharsalus

48BC- Sept. 28 Pompey is killed in Egypt after fleeing from Pharsalus

48BC- Oct. 2 Caesar arrives in Alexandria, Egypt.

47BC Caesar made dictator again for 1 year

47BC- Mar. 27 Caesar defeats the rebelious forces of Ceopatra's brother.

47BC- Aug. Caesar defeats Pharnaces at Zela in Pontus

47BC- Dec. 25-9 Caesar crosses to what is now Tunisa in N. Africa

46BC Caesar made consul for the third time and dictator for another 10 years

46BC- Apr. 6 Caesar defeats Pompeians at Thaspus

46BC- Apr. 9 Marcus Cato Porcicus commits suicide at Utica

46BC- July. 25 Caesar returns to Rome

46BC- Sept. Caesar celebrates a quadruple triumph (Gaul, Egypt, Africa)

46BC- Nov. Caesar heads to Spain

45BC-July. 25 Caesar made consul (4th time) and dictator for life

45BC-Mar. 17 Pompey's sons are defeated at Munda

45BC-Oct. Caesar returns to Rome and celebrates Spanish triumph

44BC Caesar made consul for 5th time

44BC-Feb, 15 Antony attempts to crown Caesar at the Lupercalia

44BC-Mar. 15 Caesar is murdered

References:
1. Civil Wars by Julius Caesar. translated by A. G. Peskett

Siege of Alesia

2009-06-28T22:27:00.000-06:00

In 52BC nearly all of Gaul was in revolt. Vercingentorix, leader of the Arverni was made supreme commander of the Gallic forces. After attacking Caesar’s men on the march, Vercingentorix and about 80,000 Gauls retreated to the Mandubii town of Alesia. Caesar followed and lay siege to the town with roughly 50,000 men. Caesar's forces included Germanic cavalry. Caesar saw their mounts as inferior and gave them all Roman horses.
After the siege construction began the Gauls attacked with their cavalry. The Roman and German cavalry slaughtered their attackers and pushed them right up to Gallic defences of the town. Legions were placed in front of the camps to protect the siege construction. That night, Vercingentorix sent the cavalry fled the town to gather reinforcements from the whole of Gaul. The Romans continued their construction.

Caesar described the siege works in great detail. The innermost ditch was made 20ft. wide with vertical sides. 400 paces back from there two more ditches were made. Each were 15ft. across. Water was diverted from the river to fill the inner one. Behind the ditches the legions made a rampart 12ft. tall. On top of this they constructed a parapet and battlements. Large sharpened stick projected form the side, where the parapet and rampart met. Every 80ft. along the lines a tower was built.

Caesar’s men had to scavenge for supplies at a great distance from the siege. This enticed the Gauls to make frequent raids on the depleted Roman forces. To counter this the Romans gathered tree trunks and branches, sharpened the ends, and lodged them in 5ft. deep trenches. They made 5 rows of these. In addition to this pits were dug with a single sharpened stake projecting from the center. They were then carefully camouflaged with branches and leaves. These “lilies,” as the Romans affectionately, called them were laid out in a “quincunx” pattern. (resembling the five side of a die) Finally, logs were dragged up in front of these and were covered with iron hooks. This same procedure was repeated with a second line to defend against the Gallic relief force. The completed outer ring stretched for 14 miles around the town. Both the Gauls and the Romans had collected about 30 days worth of food.

About 240,000 infantry and 8,000 cavalry gathered to come to Vercingentorix's aid. In command was Commius (of the Atrbatian tribe), Viridomorus and Eporedorix (Aeduans), and Vercassivellaunus (an Atrebatian and cousin of Vercingentorix) While this force was on it's way the Gauls inside Alesia were beginning to run low on food. To conserve the supplies Vercingentorix had the Mandubii townspeople leave. They pleaded with the Romans to be allowed out, but Caesar sent them back to put strain on the Gallic resources.

Commius and the others finally arrived and camped on a hill less than a mile form the Roman lines. The next day they filled the entire plain 3 miles across with cavalry, skirmishers and archers. The Gauls inside came out, began filling in the first Roman ditch, and prepared for the attack. Meanwhile, the Roman cavalry was lead out of their camps to meet the Gauls. The fighting began at mid-day and continued until sunset with n definite outcome. Then the Germans condensed their attack and routed the Gauls. Those inside Alesia saw all of this from their vantage point. They marched back in their gates.

The next day the relief force outside made ladders, whicker bundles (to fill in the ditches) and grappling hooks on poles to pull walls down. They yelled out to the Galus inside as the signal for a combined attack. They used slings, arrows and rocks to force the Romans away from their defenses. The Romans used slings and catapults to fend them off. Vercingentorix sounded the trumpets and marched out of Alesia. Mark Antony and Gaius Trebonius were the commanders at the point of the attack. They moved men in from the towers farther away to where fighting was heaviest. The Gauls did well at first, but as they reached the area of the pits they lost their momentum. Their were heavy casualties on both sides, but there was no breach of the walls. Fighting continued all night long. At dawn the Gauls retreated to their camp. The Gauls on the inside only accomplished to fill in the ditches. They also retreated.

On the third day the Gauls outside did more reconnaissance and chose the weakest point of the siege works to attack. At the northern part of the defences a large hill made it difficult to construct a good wall. The only fortification here was a Roman camp outside the ditches. Gaius Antistus, Reginus and Gaius Caninius Rebilus were at the camp commanding two legions. The hill here sloped down toward the Romans, leaving them at a slight disadvantage. The Gallic commander, Vercassivellaunus, took 60,000 men and marched off to this point. They left at first watch and arrived at about day-break. They concealed themselves on the opposite end of the hill and rested.

At noon the Gallic cavalry rushed in and began the attack. The Gallic infantry marched out to join them. At this same time Vercingentorix stormed out. The Romans were sandwiched in between to attacking forces. The pits were filled with dirt and the Gauls got close in testudo formation (the tortoise formation: they bunched together making walls and a roof with their large shields). The fighting was the most fierce at the northern camp. Caesar sent Labiens with 6 cohorts to help his men there. Brutus and then Legate Gaius Fabius were sent with more men. Caesar then had to come himself bringing 4 cohorts and some cavalry from the nearest fort. He sent more cavalry around the great hill to come behind the Gauls. From their higher ground, the Gauls saw him coming and fled. They were met by the charging cavalry. Sedulius, in command of the Lemovises, was killed and Vercassivellaunus was taken prisoner. 74 Roman standards were reclaimed. This was it for the Gauls. The forces inside abandoned hope and returned to the town. Around midnight the relief force fled, their rear-guard being harassed by Roman cavalry. The following day Vercingentorix and the ringleaders of the revolt surrendered.

References:
1. The Gallic War by Julius Caesar. translated by H. J. Edwards

Battle of the Sambre

2009-06-28T22:25:00.000-06:00

In 57 BC the Belgae people of Gaul were mobilizing against the Romans. The Sambre was the final battle of the campaign against them. I have chosen to depict it here because Caesar described the proceedings of battle in such high detail, thus making it easy to reenact it in an accurate way.

The Bellovaci, Suessiones, Nervii, Atrebates, Ambriani, Morini, Menapii, Caleti, Veliocasses, Viromandui, Aduatuci, Condrusi, Eburones, Caeroesi, and Paemani tribes had united to push out the Romans. They were lead by a man named Galba, king of the Suessiones. The Remi, a Belgic tribe sympathetic to Rome, warned Caesar of the impending rebellion. Caesar readied his troops and ordered the Aedui tribe to raid the Bellovaci territory.

The fighting began when the Belgae forces attacked the Remi town of Bibrax. To relieve the town, Caesar sent a force of Auxiliaries: Balearic slingers, and Numidian and Cretan archers. Upon their arrival, the Belgae broke the siege and marched toward Caesars main camp, stopping 2 miles away. There were a few cavalry skirmishes designed to test the Belgae. Caesar ordered his men to dig ditches 400 paces long to protect each flank. Outposts with artillery were built at the ends of these ditches. Two legions remained to guard the camp while the other six formed up for battle. There was a marsh in between the Belgae and the Romans. Neither side wanted to cross against this disadvantageous land. So, the Belgae decided that each tribe would return to protect their own territory individually. Their departure was very un-organized. The Romans killed many as the Belgae retreated.

Shortly after, the Romans laid siege to the Suessione town of Noviounum. They surrendered. Caesar then lead his men against the Bellovaci. They also surrendered. The Ambriani surrendered as well. So, the Belgic union disintegrated. However, the Nervii tribe was intent on continuing the fight. They were a very isolationist people, unwilling to ally with this foreign power of Rome. Lead by a man named Boduognatus, they were joined by the Atrebates, Viromandui. Aduatuci. Their forces had formed against the Romans opposite of the river Sambre. The Aduatrici were on their way to help them.

THE BATTLE OF THE SAMBRE
The river was about 3 feet deep. The land on the side of the Nervii was clear and open for about 200 paces, but it sloped up into a wooded area. The Roman side also had a hill which sloped evenly down to the river. Caesar learned where the Nervii were when he was about nine miles away. The Belgic forces were waiting in the woods as the Romans began to march in. Caesar had sent cavalry along with light infantry, archers and slingers across the river to engage the Belgic cavalry. The Belgic cavalry would flee into the woods, rush out to attack and return to the safety of the woods again. The Romans did not dare to pursue them into the closed quarters of the forest. When the Bervii forces saw the Roman baggage coming in they rushed out of the forest in full force. The Roman cavalry was scattered as the Nervii bolted across the river to meet the main force of Romans.

The Romans in camp were taken completely by surprise. Few had enough time to even put on their helmets or uncover their shields. The IX and X legions were on the Roman left flank. They met the Atrebates on higher ground and managed to push them back across the river. The legions crossed the river and defeated the enemy there. Legio XI and VIII fought the Viromandui in the center and also managed to force them back toward the river. Boduognatus lead his Nervii infantry (they had no cavalry) in a dense column squeezing through the Roman line into the camp. The Treveri cavalry arrived to help Caesar, but when they saw the camp over-run, they went home. The XIII and XIV legions were in the rear guarding the baggage train. When they learned of the fighting they rushed in to join the fighting. Titus Labienus was commanding the legions who had made it into the Belgic camp. He sent the X legion back across to help. This renewed the spirits of the Romans, who up till that time were fighting desperately. The Roman then cavalry rejoined the fight attempting to make up for their early defeat. The Belgae were wiped out. The Aduatuci arrived too late to help the Belgae, so they returned home.

References:
1. The Gallic War by Julius Caesar. translated by H. J. Edwards

Gallic War Timeline

2009-06-28T22:22:00.000-06:00

60BC Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus form first tiumvirate.

58BC Caesar obtains Cisalpine gaul and Illyricum as his province. Later Transalpine Gaul is added. He is set as proconsul for a period of 5 years.

March, 58BC The Helvettii, a Gallic tribe, decides to migrate south, joined by the Raurici, Tulingi, Latovici and the Boii. After pillaging lands of the Sequani and Aedui (tribes friendly to Rome) and attempting to enter Roman territory. Caesar begins his war.
Once the Helvettii were dealt with Caeser went on to defeat Ariovistus and his germans which had crossed into Gaul.

57BC Caesar camnpiagns agains the Belgae. Battle of the Sambre- after initial confusion, Caesar's legions go on to defeat the Belgic forces.

56BC Campains against the Venetti, a sea-faring tribe from the northwest.

55BC The German tribes, Usipetes and Tencteri, cross the Rhine and invade Gaul. The Romans beat them back, follow into Germania, lay aste to several towns annd return to Gaul.
Caeser crosses the Channel and invades southern Britainia with two legions, the X and VII. Having insuficiant amn-power, Caeser returns to Gaul.

54BC Caesar returns to Briatania a second time, this time with five legions. He gives up on the venture and returns to fight the rebellion of the Eburones lead by Ambiorix.

53BC Caesar crosses into Germany a second time. Continued fighting with the Eburones. Romans are victorious, but Ambiorix escapes. The Sugambri, a german tribe, invades the land of the Eburones, hoping to claim booty from the already defeated Gauls. When they encountered stiff resistance from the Romans they retreated across the Rhine.

52BC The Great Revolt- Vercingentorix, leader of the Arverni, takes control of the entire rebellion. After their success at Gergovia, they were penned in by the Romans at the town of Alesia. Despite having to fight the Gauls inside the town while being attacked from Gallic relief forces from behind, the Romans prevail through the use of an extensive wall and seige works.

51BC The Carnutes and Belovaci revolt. The Romans lay siege to and capture Uxellodunum. Back in Rome, tensions rise between Caesar and Pompey. The Senate requires Caeser to give up his two of his legions, the I and the XV (the XV was renamed as the III) These legions were supposed to be used for fighting the Parthians, however Pompey just kept them for the impending battle against Caesar.

References:
1. The Gallic War by Julius Caesar. translated by H. J. Edwards

Battle of Carrhae

2009-06-28T22:20:00.001-06:00

Hoping to outshine Julius Caesar and Pompey, Marcus Licinius Crassus used his wealth and Influnece to gain the proconulship of Syria In 53 BC. Here, he believed, he was in the position to win the greatest glory. The Roman Senate did not want a war with Parthia. Indeed, there was a neutrality treaty with the Parthians. But Crassus was intent on taking control of their empire. After defeating Spartacus' slave revolt, he had developed an over inflated idea of his own rather meager military abilities.

Crassus began with 7 legions, about 4,000 auxiliary light infantry. 1,000 crack Gaullic horsemen, 3,000 western Asian horsemen. 6,000 Armenian cavalry arrived with Artabazes, their king. Artabazes implored Crassus to take the army through his own country, which would provide them with ample provisions and suitable terrain as defense from Parthian cavalry. The priests in Crassus' troupe implored him not to go at all. However, Crassus, desiring a more direct route foolishly choose a path strait through Mesopotamia with Seleucia city and Ctesiphon as his objectives. At this, the Armenian and his cavalry returned home.

That spring Crassus took his army across the Euphrates River near the town of Zeugma during a heavy thunder storm. Scouts found none of the enemy, but noticed numerous horse tracks. He was then joined by 6,000 Nabataen Arab cavalry. Their chieftain, Ariamnes, was actually in the employ of the Parthians. Ariamnes lied, saying that Parthian forces were currently fleeing the area and the only resistance might come from an advance guard under the general, Surena. Crassus was convinced of the need for haste and decided to continue along the less secure desert route. In actuality the Parthian King, Orodes II (or Hyrodes), had split his army in two. The king lead a attack on Armenia as punishment for mobilizing with the Romans. Surena (one of the senior members of the 7 great clans of Parthia) was sent to attack the Romans. His army was comprised primarily from men from his own clan. The horse archers were from the Saka and Yue-Chi people. It is believed this force was only intended to delay the Romans as Orode finished his punitive attack and returned from Armenia.

Ariamnes lead the Romans away from the river. At first the march was pleasant and easy, but they soon were amidst the featureless desert. They continued through the treeless, waterless waste. At this point of low morale, they received messenger from Armenia informing them that it was impossible for Artabazes to send any help as he was too busy defending his own country. His advise was for Crassus to turn back and join forces in Armenia, or at least leave the desert for the defenses of more mountainous ground. Crassus, however, was only angered by this and swore to punish Artabazes for this. A staff officer, Cassius, and other officers suspected Ariamnes' treachery and began to argue with Crassus, but this only angered him more. The Arab stayed long enough to convince Crassus to quicken their pace. Then he and his cavalry left the Romans claiming they intended to find ways to disrupt the enemy.

As the Romans approached the town of Carrhae (modern-day Haran) their scouts raced back, saying that most of their fellows had been killed and the Parthians were at hand in full force and preparing to give battle. Astonished at this, Crassus scarcely knew what to do. His troops were in disarray as they had been marching at such a great speed. Cassius advised the panicked general to open up the ranks and form a line across the plain, placing the cavalry on each wing to prevent them from being surrounded. As this order was being carried out Crassus changed his mind and decided to form a giant hollow square with 12 cohorts on each side with cavalry and light infantry support. Cassius commanded one wing, Cassus' son, Publius another and Crassus himself went to the middle of the square. They marched forward and as they approached the Ballisur stream Crassus was advised to make camp, rest his men and wait till day to assess the strength of the enemy. He would have none of this, giving his troops only enough time to eat before charging them forward at the enemy. When they did see the Parthians they were not impressed. Surena had ordered his main force of heavy cavalry behind the front ranks and told them to hide their armor under coats and skins. When the Romans were about ready to engage the Parthians gave the signal for battle and the dreaded cataphracts uncovered their magnificent armor.

Surena's first plan was to break the Roman lines with his 1,000 cataphracts, but when he realized the depth of the Romans he called back the cavalry. At this the Roman light infantry rushed out only to be chased back by a hail of arrows. The Parthian horse archers began to surround the square, pouring a steady stream of arrows into the densely packed ranks. The arrows were of such strength that they could punch through armor and shields. The Romans waited for the arrow supply to run out. This hope was dashed when they saw Surena had brought a camel train carrying a great quantity of arrows.

Crassus saw that his rear was about to be attacked. He ordered his son, Publius to take 1,300 Gaulic horsemen, 500 archers and 8 cohorts to attack the Parthian archers. The Parthians galloped away with this Roman attack force in chase. Once Publius was far enough away from the main body of Romans, the horse archers wheeled about and were joined by a larger number of Parthians including the cataphracts.
Publius lead his Gauls on the cataphracts. Because their spears could not penetrate the cataphract armor, the frenzied Gauls grabbed on the enemy lances, pulled them to the ground, and also leaped underneath the Parthian horses to attack their exposed bellies. They even drove their own horses onto the lances. Most of the Gauls lost their mounts and were forced to retreat with Publius to a small hillock where they were surrounded. Publius ordered his armor-bearer to kill him. After the fighting the Parthians took Publius' head and 500 prisoners.

All the while Crassus was pleased that the attack on his rear had slackened. He order his men to form up in a conventional battle formation and relocated his army to sloping ground. He then got word of what was happening to his son's force. He sent no support, but began to advance. This was when the Parthians rode in with his son's head on a pike. The advance was stopped by the archers and cataphracts. Crassus had completely lost his senses by now. His lieutenant Octavius and Cassius took over and decided to retreat that night, leaving the wounded behind. When the cavalry heard this they left immediately, stopping at Carrahe long enough only to tell the men there that Crassus had fought a great battle. They then raced on to Zeugma. The Parthians watched the retreat and waited till daybreak to ride in and slaughter the Roman wounded. Plutarch wrote that no fewer than 4,000 died in this way. Some time later, A lieutenant, Varguntinus, and his 4 cohorts had strayed from the main body of Romans and were surrounded. All were killed with the exception of 20 men who were allowed to go for showing such courage in trying to fight past the Parthians.

Surena soon learned that Crassus and his men had reached the safety of the Carrhae town walls. The next day when the Parthians arrived there, Crassus again decided to retreat at night. Again, a spy lead the Romans through the worst possible route. They were trapped in marsh. Surena offered peace to the Romans if Crassus came to parlay. Tired and afraid, the legions demanded Crassus go, threatening his life if he did not. At the meeting there was a scuffle and Crassus was killed. Some of the Romans surrendered most were hunted down and killed. In the end 20,000 Romans died and 10,000 were taken prisoner and settled in the territory of Sagdia. The captured Legionary standard were held as prizes in the temples of Parthia.

References:
1. Plutarch's Lives Volume 1 by Plutarch. Arthur Hugh Clough (Editor), John Dryden (Translator)
2. Rome's Enemies (3): Parthians and Sassanid Persians by Peter Wilcox

Spartacus Revolt

2009-06-28T22:18:00.005-06:00

Spartacus was a murmillo. In the illustration above the murmillo (red scutum) faces off with a thraex (blue shield). Image courtesy of Johnny Shumate.

The follwoing text is quoted from Plutarch's Lives: Crassus.

The insurrection of the gladiators and the devastation of Italy, commonly called the war of Spartacus, began upon this occasion. One Lentulus Batiates trained up a great many gladiators in Capua, most of them Gauls and Thracians, who, not for any fault by them committed, but simply through the cruelty of their master, were kept in confinement for this object of fighting one with another. Two hundred of these formed a plan to escape, but being discovered, those of them who became aware of it in time to anticipate their master, being seventy-eight, got out of a cook's shop chopping-knives and spits, and made their way through the city, and lighting by the way on several wagons that were carrying gladiators' arms to another city, they seized upon them and armed themselves. And seizing upon a defensible place, they chose three captains, of whom Spartacus was chief, a Thracian of one of the nomad tribes, and a man not only of high spirit and valiant, but in understanding, also, and in gentleness superior to his condition, and more of a Grecian than the people of his country usually are. When he first came to be sold at Rome, they say a snake coiled itself upon his face as he lay asleep, and his wife, who at this latter time also accompanied him in his flight, his countrywoman, a kind of prophetess, and one of those possessed with the bacchanal frenzy, declared that it was a sign portending great and formidable power to him with no happy event.

First, then, routing those that came out of Capua against them, and thus procuring a quantity of proper soldiers' arms, they gladly threw away their own as barbarous and dishonourable. Afterwards Clodius, the praetor, took the command against them with a body of three thousand men from Rome, and besieged them within a mountain, accessible only by one narrow and difficult passage, which Clodius kept guarded, encompassed on all other sides with steep and slippery precipices. Upon the top, however, grew a great many wild vines, and cutting down as many of their boughs as they had need of, they twisted them into strong ladders long enough to reach from thence to the bottom, by which, without any danger, they got down all but one, who stayed there to throw them down their arms, and after this succeeded in saving himself. The Romans were ignorant of all this, and, therefore, coming upon them in the rear, they assaulted them unawares and took their camp. Several, also, of the shepherds and herdsmen that were there, stout and nimble fellows, revolted over to them, to some of whom they gave complete arms, and made use of others as scouts and light-armed soldiers. Publius Varinus, the praetor, was now sent against them, whose lieutenant, Furius, with two thousand men, they fought and routed. Then Cossinius was sent with considerable forces, to give his assistance and advice, and him Spartacus missed but very little of capturing in person, as he was bathing at Salinae; for he with great difficulty made his escape, while Spartacus possessed himself of his baggage, and following the chase with a great slaughter, stormed his camp and took it, where Cossinius himself was slain. After many successful skirmishes with the praetor himself, in one of which he took his lictors and his own horse, he began to be great and terrible; but wisely considering that he was not to expect to match the force of the empire, he marched his army towards the Alps, intending, when he had passed them, that every man should go to his own home, some to Thrace, some to Gaul. But they, grown confident in their numbers, and puffed up with their success, would give no obedience to him, but went about and ravaged Italy; so that now the senate was not only moved at the indignity and baseness, both of the enemy and of the insurrection, but, looking upon it as a matter of alarm and of dangerous consequence, sent out both the consuls to it, as to a great and difficult enterprise. The consul Gellius, falling suddenly upon a party of Germans, who through contempt, and confidence had straggled from Spartacus, cut them all to pieces. But when Lentulus with a large army besieged Spartacus, he sallied out upon him, and, joining battle, defeated his chief officers, and captured all his baggage. As he made toward the Alps, Cassius, who was praetor of that part of Gaul that lies about the Po, met him with ten thousand men, but being overcome in the battle, he had much ado to escape himself, with the loss of a great many of his men.

When the senate understood this, they were displeased at the consuls, and ordering them to meddle no further, they appointed Crassus general of the war, and a great many of the nobility went volunteers with him, partly out of friendship, and partly to get honour. He stayed himself on the borders of Picenum, expecting Spartacus would come that way, and sent his lieutenant, Mummius, with two legions, to wheel about and observe the enemy's motions, but upon no account to engage or skirmish. But he, upon the first opportunity, joined battle, and was routed, having a great many of his men slain, and a great many only saving their lives with the loss of their arms. Crassus rebuked Mummius severely, and arming the soldiers again, he made them find sureties for their arms, that they would part with them no more, and five hundred that were the beginners of the flight he divided into fifty tens, and one of each was to die by lot, thus reviving the ancient Roman punishment of decimation, where ignominy is added to the penalty of death, with a variety of appalling and terrible circumstances, presented before the eyes of the whole army, assembled as spectators. When he had thus reclaimed his men, he led them against the enemy; but Spartacus retreated through Lucania toward the sea, and in the straits meeting with some Cilician pirate ships, he had thoughts of attempting Sicily, where, by landing two thousand men, he hoped to new kindle the war of the slaves, which was but lately extinguished, and seemed to need but little fuel to set it burning again. But after the pirates had struck a bargain with him, and received his earnest they deceived him and sailed away. He thereupon retired again from the sea, and established his army in the peninsula of Rhegium; there Crassus came upon him, and considering the nature of the place, which of itself suggested the undertaking, he set to work to build a wall across the isthmus; thus keeping his soldiers at once from idleness and his foes from forage. This great and difficult work he perfected in a space of time short beyond all expectation, making a ditch from one sea to the other, over the neck of land, three hundred furlongs long, fifteen feet broad, and as much in depth, and above it built a wonderfully high and strong wall. All which Spartacus at first slighted and despised, but when provisions began to fail, and on his proposing to pass further, he found he was walled in, and no more was to be had in the peninsula, taking the opportunity of a snowy, stormy night, he filled up part of the ditch with earth and boughs of trees, and so passed the third part of his army over.

Crassus was afraid lest he should march directly to Rome, but was soon eased of that fear when he saw many of his men break out in a mutiny and quit him, and encamped by themselves upon the Lucanian lake. This lake they say changes at intervals of time, and is sometimes sweet, and sometimes so salt that it cannot be drunk. Crassus falling upon these beat them from the lake, but he could not pursue the slaughter, because of Spartacus suddenly coming up and checking the flight. Now he began to repent that he had previously written to the senate to call Lucullus out of Thrace, and Pompey out of Spain; so that he did all he could to finish the war before they came, knowing that the honour of the action would redound to him that came to his assistance. Resolving, therefore, first to set upon those that had mutinied and encamped apart, whom Caius Cannicius and Castus commanded, he sent six thousand men before to secure a little eminence, and to do it as privately as possible, which that they might do they covered their helmets, but being discovered by two women that were sacrificing for the enemy, they had been in great hazard, had not Crassus immediately appeared, and engaged in a battle which proved a most bloody one. Of twelve thousand three hundred whom he killed, two only were found wounded in their backs, the rest all having died standing in their ranks and fighting bravely. Spartacus, after this discomfiture, retired to the mountains of Petelia, but Quintius, one of Crassus's officers, and Scrofa, the quaestor, pursued and overtook him. But when Spartacus rallied and faced them, they were utterly routed and fled, and had much ado to carry off their quaestor, who was wounded. This success, however, ruined Spartacus, because it encouraged the slaves, who now disdained any longer to avoid fighting, or to obey their officers, but as they were upon the march, they came to them with their swords in their hands, and compelled them to lead them back again through Lucania, against the Romans, the very thing which Crassus was eager for. For news was already brought that Pompey was at hand; and people began to talk openly that the honour of this war was reserved to him, who would come and at once oblige the enemy to fight and put an end to the war. Crassus, therefore, eager to fight a decisive battle, encamped very near the enemy, and began to make lines of circumvallation; but the slaves made a sally and attacked the pioneers. As fresh supplies came in on either side, Spartacus, seeing there was no avoiding it, set all his army in array, and when his horse was brought him, he drew out his sword and killed him, saying, if he got the day he should have a great many better horses of the enemies', and if he lost it he should have no need of this. And so making directly towards Crassus himself, through the midst of arms and wounds, he missed him, but slew two centurions that fell upon him together. At last being deserted by those that were about him, he himself stood his ground, and, surrounded by the enemy, bravely defending himself, was cut in pieces. But though Crassus had good fortune, and not only did the part of a good general, but gallantly exposed his person, yet Pompey had much of the credit of the action. For he met with many of the fugitives, and slew them, and wrote to the senate that Crassus indeed had vanquished the slaves in a pitched battle, but that he had put an end to the war, Pompey was honoured with a magnificent triumph for his conquest over Sertorius and Spain, while Crassus could not himself so much as desire a triumph in its full form, and indeed it was thought to look but meanly in him to accept of the lesser honour, called the ovation, for a servile war, and perform a procession on foot. The difference between this and the other, and the origin of the name, are explained in the life of Marcellus.

References:
1. Plutarch's Lives Volume 1 by Plutarch. Arthur Hugh Clough (Editor), John Dryden (Translator)

Parthian Wars Timeline

2009-06-28T22:16:00.000-06:00

250BC The provinces of Parthia and Greco-Bactria split from the Seleucid Empire.

220BC The Parthians take over several eastern provines of the Seleucid Empire

209BC The King of Selucia, Antiochus III, defeats the Parthians and ends the Greco-Bactrian expansion.

190BC Romans defeat Antiochus III at Magnesia, Lydia

170-68BC Mithridates I leads the Parthians to conquer Elymais, Persia, Mewdia and Bactria

141BC The provinces of Parthia and Greco-Bactria rebel against the Seleucid Persian Empire.

141BC Parthians sieze control of Mesopotamia

135BC Parthina lose conrtol of eastern provinces of Iran due to raids of Iranian Saka nomads.

95BCParthians regain control of Iran and retain some of the nomads as subjects.

64BC Rome takes control of western Asian coast. This land grab was from Pontus in the North down to Egypt in the South. The kingdoms with in this area are made vasals. Those in close proximity are made client states.

53BC In a foolish bid for presitge, Marcus Licinius Crassus leads a Roman army to be almost totally destroyed by the Parthians at Carrhae.

20AD Augustus Caesar reclaims Armenia and Transcaucasia. The Parthinas return the Legionary standards lost at Carrhae

53AD Rome and Parthia enter into a 10 year war over control of Armenia.

63AD One legion from Spain and one from Dalmatia are restationed on the Parthian front

115AD Rome ivades Parthia

118-119AD Rome makes advances in Mesopotamia

226AD The Parthian crown is overthrown by the Sassanid Persians

References:
1. Rome's Enemies (3): Parthians and Sassanid Persians by Peter Wilcox

Punic Wars Timeline

2009-06-28T22:09:00.000-06:00

8th Century BC Carthage founded by Phoenician colonists

3rd Century The Carthaginian Empire streches across north Africa, the Belearic Islands, Sardinia, Corsica, and most of Scicily.

264 A dispute erupts in the Sicilian city of Messana. Scicilians on one side call for the help of Carthage. The other side gains support of Rome. First Punic War begins

262 Rome gains control of most of Sicily after laying siege to Agrigentum

260 As the Romans were inexperienced at naval warfare, they were defeated in the Lipara Islands. At the Battle of Mylae the Romans gained a victory by outfitting their ships with hinged planks. This allowed them to make use of their excellent infanry in naval engagements.

256 Naval Battle of Cape Economus- Roman force lead by M.Atilius Regulus and L.Manlius defeat Carthaginians lead by Hamilcar Barca. Roman army invades Africa.

255 Battle of Tunes- Romans in Africa defeated.

254 Carthaginian Army returns to Sicily

251 Battle of Panormus- Roman victory

249 Battle of Drepanum- Carthaginian victory on land and sea.

247-242 Romans continue attacks on Sicily repulsed by Hamilcar.

242 Lilybaeum and Drepanum captured by the Romans

241 Battle of Aegates Islands- Carthaginian fleet defeated. The peace treaty forces Carthage to give up Sicily and to pay retribution money to Rome.

238 Carthage loses Sardinia to the Romans

220's Corsica is taken by the Romans

225-222 The Gauls, having invaded italy as allies of Carthage, are pushed out by the Romans.

219 Hannibal, Hamilcar's son, lays siege to the Spanish city of Saguntum. The city was a greek colony allied to Rome. This sparks the Second Punic War. Legions are sent to deal with Hannibal, but the Carthaginians escape.

218 Hannibal leads an army over the Pyrenees and the Alps into Italy. He brought 34 elephants with him, but only 7 survived the journey through the mountains.
November: Battle of Ticinus- Romans lead by consul Scipio defeated.
December: Battle of Trebia- Hannibal defeats Ti.Sempronius Longus and his Romans

217 April: Battle of Lake Trasimene- Carthaginians soundly beat the army of consul, C.Flaminius. Summer: Battle of Geronium- A draw

216 August: The Battle of Cannae- Although being vastly superoior in numbers, the Romans under C. Terentius Varro suffer a terrible defeat. Roman city of Capua defects.
Battle of Nola- Hannibal repulsed.

215 Second Battle of Nola. Hannibal is pushed back again.

215-205 Macedonia becomes allied with Carthage. First Macedonian War begins.

214 Third Battle of Nora results in a stalemate

213-211 M.Claudius Marcellus Roman legions lay siege to Syracuse and is victorious

212 Hannibal takes Tarentum, the largest port in Italy. Capua is put under siege by the Romans. At the battles of Capua and Herdonia the Paetorian amries are defeated.

211 Carthaginian forces defeat two roman armies, thus gaining control of all of Spain south of the Ebro. Hanibal marches on Rome without much sffect. In italy, Capua is retaken by the Romans

210 Battle of Herdonia- Hannibal destroys two Roman consular armies (roughly 3 legions each) At the Battle of Numistro the Romans are defeated again.

209 In Spain, Scipio Africanus captures new Carthage. Roman forces under M.Claudius Marcellus are defeated by Hannibal. Raerntum is retaken by Rome.

208 Hannibal's younger brother, Hasdrubal Barca is defeated by Scipio at the battle of Baecula.

207Hasdrubal Barca crosses the Alps into Italy. Hannibal marches north to meet him. Before they could join, Hasdrubal's army is stoppped at the Metaurus River and is defeated by the romans under M.Livius Salinator and C.Claudius Nero. Hasdrubal is killed and Hannibal flees south again.

206 Battle of Ilipa- Scipio Africanus defeats the Carthaginians commanded by Mago Barca and Hasdrubal Gisgo in Spain.

204 P.Cornelius Scipio Africanus lands troops in Africa.

203 Battle of the Great Palins- Two Carthaginian armies under Syphax (a Numidian) and Hasdrubal Gisgo are defeated. Hannibal manages to sneak his army out of Italy and arrives to the defend of Carthage.

202 Battle of Zama-After a failed elephant charge, Hannibal's army is completely defeated. Carthage surrenders. Rome requires the Carthaginians to give up Spain, the islands, North Africa, her navy, and her army.

149 Carthage had recovered economically from the penalties placed on her. Jealous of this, the Roman senate decided that Carthage had broken the reaty and the third Punic War was declared. A descendant of Scipio Africanus, Scipio Aemilianus blockades Carthage.

146 The walls of Carthage were breached and the starving defenders lead by M. or C. Vetilius were slaughtered. The city was burned to the ground and its civilians were sold into slavery.

References:
1. Armies of the Carthaginian Wars 265-146 BC, by Terence Wise

Ancient Spanish

2009-06-28T22:03:00.000-06:00

What is now modern day Spain was home to various warlike tribes. The Iberians are believed to be the original settlers. The Celts expanded into the northern areas, influencing the native peoples. The Lusitani lived in the hills of modern day Portugal. Roman possession of Spanish territory began with the Second Punic War, when Scipio Africanus conquered large parts of it from the Carthaginians. This land was formed into the province of Hispania Ulterior, “Further Spain,” in 197 BC (In 13 BC Augustus would divide Hispania Ulterior into the Provinces of Baetica and Lusitania). The Romans gradually enlarged their province as additional territory was conquered from neighboring Spanish tribes. The fight for this land was notoriously bloody, while the resources yielded by the land were relatively poor.

ANCIENT SPANISH INFANTRY:
Scutari: These were the heavy infantry. The name comes from their use of the Celtic scutum. This was a long, flat, oval shield which provide protection to almost the entire body. This way was favored by the Celt-iberians, but it was not exclusive to them.

Caetrati: These were the infantry. The name comes from their use of the caetra. This was a 39-60cm diameter round buckler. It was carried with a long strap on the back when on the march. Both shields had a round metal boss on the front which protected the hand holding the shield and could be used offensively to punch the enemy. This was the favored way of the iberians, but again, the other Spanish tribes would fight this way too.

Spears:
Two major types of spear were used. The first kind was made of a typical pole of wood with a metal tip. the second type was more unique to the spanish tribes. The soliferrum, as it was called by the Romans, was entirely made of iron with a barbed head. The great weight of the spear gave the warrior the ability to punch right through shield and armor.

Swords:
The spanish were renown for their fine swords. Straight swords similar to those used by the Celts were used as well as a short sword. This short sword called gladius hispanicus by the romans was so impressive that the legions adopted it for their own use. The manufacture and use of the falcata was perfected in Spain. This sowrd had a distinctive curved blade for slashing and a hilt that curved over to protect the hand. Axes were not much favored.

CAVALRY:
Spain has long been renown for its horses. Their cavalry was as well respected as the Numidians. Cavalrymen generally carried the same equipment and weapons as the infantry.

SLINGERS:
The Balearic Islands off the coast of the spanish mainland had a great reputation for producing some of the finest slingers in teh known world. A sling was one of a child’s first toys. He practised throughout his life until he became an absolute espert marksman. Slingers ferom these islands were incorporated into armies throught ancient times. They fought with Macedonians, the Carthagenians, and the Romans. Each slinger carried 3 different slings of different lengths. the longer the sling, the greater the attack distance. They used lead or ceramic pellets for the short and medium distances. Rocks from the battle field were used for long distance. It is interesting to note that the unused slings were often tied on the slinger’s head to hold back his long hair. Hairnets were also popular.

ARMOR:
Various types of armmor were used: Fabric, thick woven panels of grass, hardened leather, metal plate, scale and mail. The plates were sometimes decorated in relief with animal designs, grometric patterns or left plain. There is evidense to suggest that some wore corselets of mixed mail and scale. The scale covered the upper torso and the more flexible mail covered the lower. Metal grieves were also worn.

References:
1. Wilcox, Peter. Rome's Enemies (4) : Spanish Armies 218-19 BC. Osprey Publishing, 1993.

Early German Warriors

2009-06-28T21:54:00.000-06:00

2nd century BC - 2nd 1st cen. AD.

Early 1st century AD Batavian German warrior illustration courtesy of Johnny Shumate.

There were numerous germanic tribes that warred with each other just as frequently as they warred with Rome. They were unified by a common tongue and similar culture, but never formed a unified state. Unlike Gaul, the german lands were not wholly conquered by Rome. The first emperor, Augustus, had grand plans for an invasion of Germania. However, that dream died in in 9AD when Varus lost 3 full legions and supporting auxiliaries. For the rest of Roman history, the land east of Rhine and north of the Danube rivers remained primarily in barbarian hands. The legions would, of course, make retaliatory raids into the german territory, though it seems the Roman idea was to man only enough land on the far side of the Rivers to create a more defendable border. The kingdom of Dacia was indeed conquered and made a province at the beginning of the 2nd century. However, this land north of the Danube was controlled by a people of Celtic, Thracian, Scythian stock—considered to be separate people from the germans.

GERMAN WARRIORS
According to Tacitus, the strength of the German warband lay in its infantry. Each warrior carried several javelins. Cavalrymen were equipend similarly, with only a very few armored. The quickest men were formed into units of a regular size of 100 men. They occupied the front rank, following the cavaly.

Tacitus was not especially impressed by the quality of german cavalry, yet Julius Caesar employed them to great effect in his wars. Cavalry were not meant as shick troops to burst through enemy lines. Their main use was in hit and run tactics, attacking the enemy flank, routing fleeing enemy infantry, and protecting the german flank.

The german battle line was made up of a series of wedges. Each wedge was composed of family or kin groups. Women might be present at the rear to praise the men’s courage or condemn their cowardice. (Tacitus)

Weaponry
Generally speaking, german warriors were not as well equipped as the Gauls. Tacitus states that iron was short supply in the German lands. This is born out by archaeological evidence. Very few domestically produced. long swords are found to be dating from the 5th cen. BC onwards. Spear points measure from 12-26cm. The spear appears to have been the predominant weapon, along with short single-edge daggers. A longer single-edge blade, the sax became increasingly popular starting in the 2nd cen. BC. Throughout their times Germans made use of Gaulic or Roman arms imported by trade or as booty.(Wilcox)

Armor
Armor is nearly absent until the 2nd cen. AD when Roman-made equipment begins to imported on a larger scale.

Shields
There have been some finds of German shields. See my article on Celtic and German Shields. Their infantry made use of oval, rectangular, multi-sided body shields. Cavalrymen used smaller round or oval shields. Tacitus states that, "...the shields are marked out in very bright colours" Unfortunately, there is no direct evidence for the graphics that may have bee emblazoned on the face of these german shields. Some Roman coins depict german shield blazons. Yet, these designs are even less likely to be accurate depictions than those found on Roman sculpture.

NOTABLE GERMAN GROUPS

Batavians
The Batavians inhabited an island between the Meuse, Waal, and Rhine rivers in what is now the netherlands. Tacitus says they were the most brave of all the german tribes. They were once members of the Chatti tribe. Many Batavians joined the Roman army as auxiliaries in the late 1st century BC and early 1st century AD. (Wink) In 69 AD the Batavian auxiliary units and tribesmen revolted against Rome. Their leader was the Batavian, Julius Civilus. (Tacitus) This rebellion lead to the Roman practice of posting auxiliaries away from their homelands and prohibiting commanders from being of the same tribe.

Chatti
In the forested lands southeast of the Ruhr River, and north of the Main River, lived the Chatti. Tacitus names it the, Hercynian Forest. They were a well organized and polically strong people able to wage prolonged wars.

Cherusci
It was Arminius and the Cherusci people that destroyed Varus three legion in the Teutoberg Forest. For battles with the Romans see: Tacitus, Annals 2.22, Suetonius, Lives of the Caesers, Caligula 1.4

References:
1. Wilcox, Peter. Rome's Enemies 1, Germanics and Dacians,. Osprey Publishing, 1993.

2. Wink, Adrian. “Elite Tribal Infantry” from Ancient Warfare Magazine, Issue 1, Vol 1. June/July 2007.

3. Tacitus, The Histories.

4. Todd, Malcom. The Early Germans. Blackwell Publishing. 2004

Celtic and German Clothing

2009-06-28T21:49:00.000-06:00

The above image is a reconstruction of the clothing found at Thorsburg.

The clothing of the Iron Age British, Gauls, and Germans was quite similar in style. Evidence for what they wore comes from sculpture, archaeology and the writings of Greek and Roman authors. In order for organic material such as clothing to survive special anaerobic conditions must be met. Perhaps the most complete find is the material from Thorsberg in Schleswig-Holstein. A near complete ensemble was discovered in a peat bog in the 1860s. The clothing is considered to be German and from no later than the 3rd century AD. Ancient fashion changed very little over the centuries, so one may cautiously use this find to better understand the clothing of the Iron Age to early Roman period.

A. Long-Sleeve Tunic
The wool tunic found at Thorsberg was made from a single piece of cloth. It has a diamond twill weave. The tunic was 52-56 cm wide, 86-90 cm tall. The neck hole was 26 cm wide. Each sleeve was 58 cm long. It was laced together on the sides. the seem of the sleeves was on the back (Wild). It was dyed red with purple tablet-woven ornamental bands around the cuff (Sumner).

B. Trousers
The Thorsberg trousers were also wool, but undyed. It is a diamond twill. They were made with belt loops and built-in socks(Wild)—much like modern-day childrens’ pajamas! They were tailored to fit the body, which confirms Tacitus' assetion that the Germans wore tight pants. (Tacitus) So, their pants were form-fitting, but they could not have been too tight. They would need to have been loose enough to allow full movement on the battlefuield. Modern re-enactors have had trouble with tight trousers splitting a seam!

The Gauls are thought to have worn more loosely fitting straight-legged trousers. I am currently trying to find an archaeological basis for that.

The Dacians on Trajan’s Column are depicted wearing fitted trousers, but it appears that their pants were straight legged and tucked and bound at the ankle, rather than tailored to fit the form of the leg.

C. Cloak
The Thorsberg woolen cloak is 1.68m x 2.5m. It is a plain twill with a blue check pattern (Wild). John Peter Wild describes the cloak as having three shades of blue, but Graham Sumner reports it as having only two. In Germania Tacitus described the German cloak as being fastened with either a metal clasp or a simple stick or thorn.

D. Hooded Shoulder Cape
An example of Cletic/Germanic clothing not found at Thorsberg is the shoulder-cape. Much shorter than a cloak, this consisted of a hood with cloth extending down over the shoulders. The seem came right down the front center. Some may have been made of wool, the two archaeological examples are leather. A patch-work leather example was found at Krogens Molle Moss in Denmark. A cape made of a single piece of leather was found at Treveran (in modern France). A bronze figurine found at Trier and a sculpture from Neumagen depict this cape. (Wild)

Material
Clothing was made of wool, leather (from cows or goats). The British exported wool in great quantity. Flax is known to have been grown in Iron Age Britain, so linen is another possibility (Martin). I presume the Gauls and Germans also grew flax, but I can not offer any books that discuss it. The fibers of the nettle could also be spun into thread. (Glenys)

Fabric Colors
Practically every color was available to the Iron Age fabric maker. The wool need not have been dyed to achieve a good range of colors. One might perceive of sheep as fluffy white balls of wool, or maybe the black sheep comes to mind. Yet, an ancient flock could have sheep of many diiferent colors. White, tan, brown, dark brown, light grey, dark grey, black. Iron Age cloth found at Hallstatt, Austria contained white and naturaly colored fibers. (Glenys)

Dyes were made from natural sources. Woad and madder are good examples of plants producing dyes—blue and orangish-red respectively. Natural dyes tend to be more muted than modern chemical dyes—especially when the fibres being dyed aren not bright white.

Patterns
Diodorus Siculus states the Celts wore striking clothing, their tunics dyed and embroidered with many colors. He wrote that the Celtic cloaks were in a mixed close-set check pattern. The above mentioned fabric from Hallstatt had ’a rectangular pattern of bands of black or dark brown wool, which was reminiscent of a Scottish tartan.”(Glenys) Cassius Dio wrote of Boudica’s multicolored tunic.

References:
1. Lloyd-Morgan, Glenys. “Appearance, Life and Leisure” in Green, Miranda J. The Celtic World. Routledge 1996.

2. Jones, Martin. The Environment of man: The Iron Age to the Anglo-Saxon period (BAR British series) 1981.

3. Sumner, Graham. Roman Military Clothing (2): AD 200-400 2003 Osprey Publishing, Ltd.

4. Wild, John P. “The Clothing of Britannia, Gallia belgica, and Germania inferior” in Aufstieg und Niedergang Welt II 12.3. New York 1985.

5. Tacitus. Germania 17.

For ancient german clothing see also: Rogers, Penelope W.The Roman Textile Industry and Its Influence: A Birthday Tribute to John Peter Wild Oxbow Books 2001. See a review here: Bryn Mawr Classical Review

Celtic Warriors

2009-06-28T21:42:00.000-06:00

The above image is from a box of toy soldiers by Italeri.

Classical writers were fond of characterizing the Celts as un-civilized barbarians. The Greeks and Romans derided the Celts’ violent behavior, yet their own societies encouraged this warrior society. Slaves and mercenaries were in high demand in the Mediteranean. In response to such a market, the neighboring Celts placed emphasis on fighting abilitiy—to captures slaves for trade and to offer skilled fighters for hire. War was a large part of their society, but they were not simple brutes. yet They were also superb craftsmen, with a developed market economy. Although they shared a similar culture and language, the varied Celtic people never formed a single unified nation. Indeed, many historians now are reluctant to use the term “celt”, because it implies a false homogeny.

Romans were impressed by Celtic prowess in battle and were eager to employed them (especially the cavalry) in the Roman army. Roman territory had long been subject to raids by various Celtic tribes. The conquering and "Romanizing" of Gaul and Britain reduced the threat to Roman interests. However, raids from the remaining free Celtic lands and rebellions from within would continue.

COSTUME
The ancient Celts were fond of bright colors. Their trousers, capes and tunics were dyed with stripes, plaids and other patterns. Some of the more fanatical warriors were reported to have fought completey naked. See my article on Celtic Clothing.

EQUIPMENT
The style of Celtic objects is catagorized by the La Tene dating system. (dates are approximations)
La Tène I: 450 - 250 BC
La Tène II: 250-120 BC
La Tène III: 120 -50 BC
La Tène IV (Britain only, after Gaul fell to Rome) 50 BC - 100 AD

Weapons
Celtic Shields

Armor - The Celts were among the first people to develop chainmail. They may have invented it. This excellent body armor was typically reserved for the wealthy Celtic nobles, but it was not too uncommmon for the rank and file men to wear a bronze or ironhelmet. Based on the number of Iron Age helmets found on the continent vs. Britain, it would seem that helmets among the British were less common than with the Gauls.

ARMY COMPOSITION
Celtic warbands were composed of several general catagories of specialized warriors.
Command - carried large shield, heavily armored warlords. Battle commands were relayed by standard bearers and horn players.
Heavy Infantry - large shield, spearmen and swordsmen.
Light Infantry - small or no shield, slingers, archers, javelinmen
Cavalry - elite warriors, armed similarly to heavy infantry.
Chariots - uncommon on mainland Europe by 1st century BC, continued in Braitian.

TACTICS
The battle tactics of the Celtic tribes must have varied somewhat from region to region. Caesar's writings of his war with the Gauls indicate the celts could be quite capable of sophisticated miliatry tactics and formations. Captured celtic equipment sculpted on Roman monuments implies the celts fought in an organized fashion. For instance, the Arch of Orange depicts celtic trumpets, military standards and flags. These are all items used in conveying commands and maintaining organization on the battlefield. Ancient writers such as Polybius stated that the celts were unruly warriors, lacking planning or control. However, it seems this characterization was fabricated only to present the Romans as superior.

Celtic Helmets

2009-06-28T20:44:00.001-06:00

Archaeologists have uncovered Celtic helmets throughout their territory. The highest concentration and numbers of finds have been in the lands of the Senones tribe. It is in this area of northern Italy that lie the Montefortino burial grounds.
The ancient writer, Tacitus, stated that the British Celts (and Germans) did not wear helmets. Indeed, very few Celtic helemts have been found in Britain (I am aware of only two - both now housed in the British Museum). So, it appears that helmets were common only among the Gauls, the upper class warriors in particular. These high-quality helmet designs were a great influence on Roman armorers. The types listed below are the most common kinds in use during the 1st century BC.

Montefortino Helmet Archaeologists named this type after a Celtic burial ground in northen Italy. The Montefortino helmet emerged sometime in the 5th century BC. Earlier examples tended to be made of bronze, while iron construction became popular in later years. The knob at the helmets peak could hold a variety of crests: figural metal pieces, feathers, horsehair plumes, etc. Although the helmets decorative accents changed, the basic form was in use among Celtic and Roman soldiers for the next 400 years!

Coolus Helmet This helmet is named after the French town where the first example was unearthed. Historians often refered to them as "jockey cap" helmets. They were developed in the 3rd century BC and continued in production unitl well after the Roman conquest of Gaul. Though less common than the Montefortino, the Coolus was simple and effective in design. Their basic form is related to the Montefortino helmet, lacking the top knob. Cheek guards could be added, especially if they were produced for Roman use.

See photo of the Roman interpretation of the Coolus helmet on the British Museum website.

Agen-Port Helmet The iron Agen and Port type helmets were very similar in form. The "Port" name refers to Port bei Nidau, Swirzerland (where an example was found. I'm not sure what "Agen" refers to! The shell of the helm was deep and full, rather like a bowler hat. It was circled by a brim which sometimes extended in the back to form a neckgaurd. Port helmets are distinguished from Agen types by features such as embossed eyebrow designs and a rim that was lower, closer to ear-level. The cheek pieces are of a different shape than the older Celtic helmet types. This was the inspiration for the Imperial Roman Gallic type helmets.

References:
1. Greece and Rome at War, by Peter Connolly. A good many Celtic helmets are illustrated in this book.
2. Rome's Enemies (2): Gallic and British Celts, by Peter Wilcox.
3. Celtic Warrior: 300 BC-AD 100, by Stephen Allen.

See a detailed photo of the British Iron Age La Tène style horned helmet on the British Museum website.

Christianity in the Roman Army

2009-06-26T09:02:00.000-06:00

The Roman government was largely tolerant of foreign religions. Most of the people incorporated into the Empire were polytheistic, worshiping many gods just as the Romans did. It was easy to accept the foreign gods, because to the Romans many of these appeared to be their very same gods worshiped under a different name. There were foreign deities which did not conveniently correspond with a Roman ones. This did not pose a problem as long as the followers of these gods welcomed Roman gods in their worship. However, there were two religions for which the Romans had very little tolerance: Judaism and Christianity. There was the belief that for Rome to prosper, its gods must be properly venerated. The nature of these monotheistic religions made this impossible. As a result, Jews and Christians across the empire suffered insult, harassment and persecution.

Those in power were especially alarmed at Christianity's growth within the Empire. Whereas those of the Jewish faith tended to keep to themselves, Christians were actively promoting and spreading their belief. The excellent road system, shipping routes and general peace of the Empire allowed Christian missionaries to spread their word relatively quickly. There was a constant hostility toward the religion, sporadically bursting into state organized violence as in the persecutions lead by Emperors Nero, Domitian, Marcus Aurelius, Decius, Gallus, Valerian and Diocletian. Noted victims include Peter and Paul who were arrested on separate occassions and executed in Rome sometime around 65 -67 AD.

Initially more popular with the poor and underprivileged, Christianity was slow to enter the ranks of the Roman army. The New Testament of the Bible mentions several occasions were Roman soldiers were convinced by Jesus. For instance, Matthew 8:5 tells of a Roman centurion embracing the new faith. In following years, there would be Christians found in the Roman army. however, the number was very small. The army placed a strong emphasis on pagan ritual, something quite distastefull to devout Christians. A Christian would have very little reason to join the ranks of an establishment so often employed in the persecution of his fellows, and there would have been great pressure discouraging exisiting soldiers from taking up the religion.

The Roman Empire went through a dramatic change with the rise of Emperor Constantine. On October 28, 312 AD Constantine's army defeated and killed his rival, Maxentius, at battle of Milvian Bridge. The night before the battle, Constantine was commanded in a dream to place a sign of Christ on the shields of his soldiers. Twenty-five years later Eusebius, the early Christian historian, gives us a far different account in his "Life of Constantine" When Constantine and his army were on their march toward Rome they observed in broad daylight a strange phenomenon in the sky: a cross of light and the words "by this sign you will be victor." During the next night Christ appeared to Constantine and instructed him to place the heavenly sign on the shields and standards of his army. This new symbol became known as the labarum. It consists of the overlapping of the "Chi and Ro" (the first 2 Greek letters in the word "Christ") forming a cross shape.

Attributing his success to his newfound faith, he made Christianity the official religion of the empire. Constantine ordered the end of any religious persecution in all of the Empire, a step he had already taken in his own provinces of Britainia and Gaul in 306. He proclaimed the Edict of Toleration at Milan in 313, in which Christianity was made legal throughout Rome. By 324 Constantine was in full control of a united empire. He relocated the imperial headquarters to Byzantium, whose name he then changed to Constantinople. The top political and military posts were now filled by Christians. Although they continued to operate, the old pagan temples were stripped of their former wealth, which was then shifted to Christian churches. The many fledgling churches across the empire thus acquired great strength and prosperity. In the East, the city of Constantinople would grow to be the capitol of a Christian Byzantine Empire, flourishing long after the Western Empire was lost to invading barbarians. Although no longer part of a unified Roman empire, western Europe would see the continued growth of Christianity.

It was in 337 AD that Constantine received Christian baptism on his deathbed. His chosen religion continued to grow eventually completely extinguishing the old pagan religion. It has been argued that Constantine was merely using the growing influence of Christianity for his own benefit. Whether or not this is true, it is agreed that the religion benefited tremendously from his patronage.

References:
1. Late Roman Infantryman AD 236 - 565, by Simon MacDowall
2. Romano-Byzantine Armies 4th-9th Centuries, David Nicolle
3. The Holy Land, by Peter Connolly

Roman Military Relgion

2009-06-26T08:59:00.000-06:00

Posted far from home and faced with death and injury, the Roman soldier had good reason for fear. Religion served to instill the men with confidence and discipline. The religious activities of the army were linked with those in civilian life. Festivals, ceremonies, official cult monuments, and oaths made the soldiers feel at home in the military. The ceremonies were strategically planned to coincide with travel and war. The Roman army often cleared the outside borders of their camps not only for protection from surprise attacks, but because this sacred area was set side for the gods. Roman religion had great propaganda value. When new lands were conquered the Romans often erected monuments to show that the land was now under Roman control. The institution of Roman religion in new provinces can be viewed as a method of "Romanizing" conquered peoples.

THE STANDARDS
The battle standards of the legions were venerated in a religious way. The legionary standard with the most symbolic importance was the aquila, "eagle." In the Empire a cult of the emperor developed. This manifested itself in the imagio, a standard topped with a golden representation of the ruling emperor's face. An incident in Judea highlights this standards religious value. The procurater of Judea, Pontius Pilot, began his term in office by bringing in some standards to be housed in Jerusalem. Among them were imagio of Emperor Tiberius. The outraged Jewish populace protested, demanding the removal of these graven images. They insisted on their demand despite the Romans' threat of violence (Josephus, The Jewish War II, 165).

The success and prosperity of a unit was seen as linked to the standards. Every Roman camp or fort had a shrine to house the staqndards. To lose a standard was a tremendous dishonor. The army would do everything within its power to regain it. Recovered standards were not returned to the legion. They were instead placed in a temple constructed by Augustus devoted to Mars Ultor, "Mars the Avenger."

THE MILITARY OATH
Every Roman soldier pledged allegiance in a sacred oath, known as the Sacramentum. This pledge maintained the idea that a position in the Roman military was of sacred importance. Unfortunately, no complete text of the oath has been preserved, probably due to each legion's own individual version of the Sacramentum. The oath was recited on enlistment, on the third of January, the anniversary of the current emperor's reign. In the Republic the soldiers pledged their loyalty to their commander. In the Empire the emperor received the pledge. This change was enacted under Augustus.

RELIGION IN CAMP
At the center of Roman military camp or fort was a shrine, known as the aedes. This housed the standards and the treasury of the unit. In the center of the shrine were the aquila and imagio, which were encircled by the standards of each cohort. The shrine was given precedence over all other structures. Other buildings were made of wood, this important building was made of stone. The shrine also served as a meeting place for troops and as the center of religious worship, this is due in part to the soldiers' worship of the contents of the shrine.

GODS of WAR

Jupiter
Jupiter, the god of light and sky, was the supreme god of the Roman pantheon. The army worshipped him especially as Jupiter Optimus Maximus, which means "all-good and all-powerful." His temple was the most important sanctuary in Rome and was also the center of political life. At this Temple wars were declared and the Roman army came to give thanks. The eagle was often considered his messenger, hence the impotance of the eagle as a military standard. Eagle wings and lighteningbolts, both symbols of Jupiter, featured prominently on Roman shield blazons and other miliary equipment. The presence of an actual eagle in the sky could serve as an omen of defeat or as a sign of victory.

Mars
Mars was one of the most worshipped gods in the Roman military. The soldiers sought his protection in battle and credited his power with the Empire's expansion. Mars was the son of Jupiter and Juno, and was thought to be the father of Romulus and Remus, the mythical founders of Rome. Many temples were erected in his honor. The Temple of Mars Gradivus was particularly important to the Roman army. This was where the army gathered before they went to war. Sacrifices and prayers to Mars were held there to ensure a Roman victory. The Campus Martius, "field of Mars", which was situated beyond the city walls of Rome, was also dedicated to him. Here the Roman army was drilled for battle. In the Regia on the Forum Romanum, the hastae Martiae (lances of Mars) were kept. When these lances were moved it was interpreted as a portent of war. The warlord was to lead the army in to battle while saying "Mars vigilia!", which meant "Mars awaken!". These actions and words were intended to make Mars awake and lead them to victory. Several festivals were held in honor of Mars: The Armilustrium, which was held on October 19, was very important to the Roman Army. During this festival the weapons of the soldiers were ritually purified and then stored for the winter.

Minerva
Minerva was the goddess of wisdom, medicine, science, and war. The daughter of Jupiter, she was often considered the patroness of the Roman army.

THE CULTS

The Cult of Juppiter Dolichenus
This cult was directly associated with the creation of weapons with iron. This cult was popular among the legions because of the soldiers strong assosiations with the metal. Juppiter Dolichenus is said to have originated from the sky, while others said he came from the place where iron was born. This cult had its greatest popularity in the early third century. Soldiers did not think the cult was properly established until a sanctuary was built. As a result, a sanctuary to Juppiter Dolichenus was erected in 191 AD in Rome.

FOREIGN RELIGIONS
Cults from conquered provinces were often incorporated into the military religious structure. These new cults were often avery specific to particular units of the military. For example, when Rome expanded into Syria a cult was imported and became exclusively affiliated with the archers. In the mid second century AD the eastern gods, Serapis and Isis, were very popular, and they had an altar dedicated to them by the Roman army. Egyptian gods were very popular. Ancient Egyptian dieties and pharaohs were made into Roman gods.

Mithraism
Originally based on the eastern frontier, Legio XV Apollinaris introduced the cult of Mithraism to the Roman west after transfered to the Danube in the third century AD. It became an important cult, especially popular with the officers. The myth stated that "Lord of Light," Mithras, killed a bull, spilling its blood to release human creativity. Several aspects of the cult were attractive to soldiers. It was a religion only open to men. It had a special trainig periods, initiantion rites and a rigid rank structure, all similar to the army. One of its core beliefs was that of an afterlife.

Christianity
Esentially a religion of peace and forgiveness, Christianity had received little interest from the army types until well after it was made the Empire's offical religion.

References:
1. The Roman Imperial Army: Of the First and Second Centuries A.D., by Graham Webster
2. The Roman Fort, by Peter Connolly
3. Military Religion in Roman Britain, by Georgia L. Irby-Massie
4. The Roman Cult of Mithras, by Manfred Clauss

Roman Navy

2009-06-26T08:54:00.000-06:00

The above image is from a Zevzda model box. Note the "corvus" at the fore.
The (classis)(naval fleet) provided the Roman army with both sea power and logistical support. The Roman navy was always considered inferior and was under the control of the army. Initially, ancient Romans had no great love of the sea. It was during the first Punic War that it became a necessary for a strong navy to be built. Rome were surrounded by other Mediterranean nations who had already had large fleets and much experience in seafaring. The Romans relied on the accomplishments of foreign navies in developing their own.

Contrary to popular belief, the navy did not use slaves. The rowers, sailors and soldiers were auxiliaries receiving citizenship after serving for 26 years. Though most came from a seafaring community, this was not a requisite to join. The officers came from the Roman equestrian class. In Imperial times they often were freedmen from the Imperial household.

History of Roman ship building:

1. The first Roman ships were built by following the example of captured Carthaginian vessels, combined with the expertise supplied by the Greek cities of southern Italy. The Carthaginians designs were reflections of early Greek and/or Phoenician ships. Foremost among these was the trireme.

The trireme was built for speed and mobility. The triremes were 120 feet long, and were powered by rowers arranged in three rows. The crew was made up of 200 men: 170 rowers (1 man to each oar) and the rest were officers, sailors and marines. There were 62 men rowing at the top level. There were 54 men rowing at each of the lower 2 levels. The commander of a trireme was trierarch. The oarsmen chief was the hortator (one who exhorts or encourages). They were built low to the ground, the bottom row of rowers were just 18 inches above the waterline, and very narrow. The displacement of a vessel reached 230 tons, length - 45 meters. This all meant that the triremes could not handle rough seas. The oars on triremes were of various length. The triremes were built for short, close in, battles. They were not made to handle long, open ocean campaigns. The rigging consisted of a large rectangular and small sails on the sloping mast in a row of a vessel. The triremes were very maneuverable and fast: 7 - 8 knots (a number based on modern reconstructions of the craft).

Based on the basic design of the trireme, the quinquereme became the standard battle ship. One might assume that the "quin" (latin for "five) in "quinquereme" refered to five levels of ours, just as a "tri"reme had three levels. However, it would be very difficult to row a ship with more than 4 levels of oars, so it is more likely that the "quin" refered to the files of rowers. So if you were to stand on one side of the top deck and look bellow to the rowers, you would see 2 men rowing at the top level, 2 men rowing bellow them, and on rowing at the bottom level.

2. In the latter half of the 1st century BC, a new style of ship-building was introduced, borrowed again from enemies of Rome. The liburna, was so called because it was developed from the ships used by the Illyrian pirates of Liburnia (in the mondern-day Balkans). It had only two rows of oars, and the Romans came to prefer it because of its greater speed and maneuverability.

3. After the battle of Actium (31 B.C.) the main purpose of the navy became transport. The ships of the Republic (from about 260 B.C. to 50 B.C.) had been vessels intended primarily for combat, with full decks to provide a large area for mustering soldiers, a powerful ram, and an easily removable mast allowing a high degree of maneuverability. Reflecting the fact that there was no longer an existing enemy fleet to deal with, the Cabins now became the norm. Some ships had two (usually at the stern, but occasionally at the prow), suggesting an increased level of comfort: important if galleys were to be used for the transportation of dignitaries.

BATTLE TACTICS:

I. Ramming Speed!
The traditional weapon of trireme was battering ram - a prolongation of a keel beam, strengthened with metal. During the battle triremes advanced to maximum speed to attack with a battering ram. The ship was either aimed directly into the side of an enemy ship to sink it. Or it was driven close in and alongside the enemy, snapping the enemies oars in half as it went, thus deprive its movement.

II. Send in the Marines!
During the first Punic War, the logical Romans came up with the idea idea that a warship was little more than a floating platform on which the soldiers could fight. They invented a huge boarding plank with a large spike on the end, which could be raised and lowered like a drawbridge. Before battle it would be raised and then dropped onto an enemy deck. The spike would embed itself into the enemy deck planking and the legionaries could board the enemy vessel across it. This elaborate beak contraption was called thecorvus (raven).

III. Bombs Away!
Mounted artillery and personal range weapons added fired from the deck gave the Roman ship firepower. Slings and arrows could be used against the enemy sailors. Varying types of catapults, shooting hefty stones or bolts, could be used as antipersonnel weapons or could launch flaming projectiles against the enemy ship itself. Temporary wooden towers built on the deck improved the angle of fire. The 7th century Byzantine Navy, a continuation of the Eatern Roman Navy, created and even more potent weapon, greek fire. This mysterious combustible concoction could be blasted from bronze tubes onto enemy ships. Water alone could not extinguish its flames. The recipe for this weapon was so closely guarded that within only 50 years of its invention, the knowledge was lost even to the original owners!

References:
1. Roman Britain and the Roman Navy, by David J.P. Mason
2. The Roman Army at War 100 BC - AD 200, by Adrian Keith Goldsworthy
3. Greece and Rome at War, by Peter Connolly

Veteran Settlement

2009-06-25T22:09:00.001-06:00

In the Early Republic
In its origins, the colonization of land was done for the sake of national security. Latin colonies (colonae) were strongholds established in the lands of recently conquered Italian peoples. They were a means to exert control. For instance, in 201 BC the Senate decided to distribute land in Samnium and Apulia (discussed by Livy 31.4.1-3j 31.49.5). These towns were fortified self-governing communities, owing allegiance to Rome. Living in the colonies was considered a form of military service. The colonists policed the local populace and could be quickly called war if the need arose. Colonies tended not to be established outside of Italy. This would place them too far from Rome’s center of control.

The first colony of retired soldiers was established after the defeat of Hannibal. The Roman commander, Scipio, asked the Senate to establish settlements in the south of the Italy. Scipio’s men received plots of land, two lugera (.68 of a modern acre) for each year fought in Spain and Africa. These settlements were collection of neighbors, lacking the fortifications or self-government of earlier colonies.

In the Later Republic
By the second century BC the Italian peninsula was at peace, so there was no need for new settlements. In addition, there was little public land available for disbursement. Only the Senate held the authority to establish such sites. However, military commanders increasingly put pressure on the Senate to award land to their troops. In 103 BC Marius demanded land for for his veterans of the African campaign. The Senate was opposed to this. Their concern was that in such a move would weaken the soldiers’ allegiance to the Republic, transferring loyalty instead to their commander. Marius’ tribune, L. Appuleius Saturninus, resorted to threatening the senators with violence. The presedent now set, the veterans of Marius’ German campaigns also were awarded land in 100 BC. In 82 BC Sulla sidestepped the Senate, taking land away from the Italian cities which had supported his rivals, Marius and Cinna. In 70 BC Pompey successfully appealed to the Senate to receive land for his men. Julius Caeser was another general intent on rewarding his men. He avoided conflict with the Senate by dispensing land outside of Italy. In the 40s BC he founded veteran settlements in Gaul, Africa, and Spain. After the Battle of Philippi in 42BC Octavian removed the people of 18 Greek towns to create space for his veterans. In 43 BC the Triumvirs, Ocatvian, Lepidus, and Antony held conference at the island of Bonomia. The result was that the Senate was officially stripped of its control of forming settlements.

In the Empire
During the Empire awarding of land to retired Roman soldiers continued, although it was not standard compensation for military service. Veteran settlement was quite problematic for the commander. In order to provide land for his soldiers, he would need to displace the citizens already living there—an unpopular move to be sure! Consequently, the aftermath of a civil war was the ideal opportunity for land grabs. A victorius emperor was free to take property from the supporters of his defeated rival, awarding the land to his loyal troops.

References:
1. Broadhead, Will. “Colonization, Land, and Veteran Settlement”. p148-163 in Erdkamp, Paul. A Companion to the Roman Army. Blackwell, 2007.

2. Keppie, Lawrence. Colonisation and veteran settlement in Italy, 47-14 B.C. London : British School at Rome, 1983.

Related Publications

Lawrence Keppie published a number of writings on the subject of Roman military settlements.

1. Keppie, Lawrence. Colonisation and Veteran Settlement in Italy in the First Century A. D. London, 1984.

2. Keppie, Lawrence. Colonisation and official veteran settlement in Italy from Caesar to Nerva. Vol. 1.2 1978

Cavalry Units and Rank

2009-06-25T21:58:00.001-06:00

An auxiliary standard bearer, mid to late first century AD.

Note: The unit numbers given here are all ideal troop strengths and would have fluctuated during peace and war time.

Alae:
These were units of non-Romans entirely composed of cavalry. The word ala means "wing" and was used
because of the cavalry's deployment on the wings of the army. It was here that cavalry was most effective at preventing the outflanking of the Roman battle line. There were two sizes of alae. The ala quingenaria was a unit of roughly 500 men. This unit was further divided into 16 units of roughly 32 men called turmae.

During the Flavian period additional, larger units of alae were created. The ala milliariae was a unit of roughly 1,000 men. Only a few of these existed in the empire. A province would have no more than one at a time. There were 24 turmae of about 32 men each.

Cohortes Equitatae:
Introduced in the Julio-Claudian period, these units were composed of a mix of infantry and cavalry. Julius Caesar and Augustus used mixed troops in this fashion, but only when the need arose. The permanent cohors equita did not appear until after. There were two principle sizes: the cohors quingenaria of roughly 120 infantry and 380 cavalry and the The cohors milliaria requitata of roughly 240 infantry and 760 cavalry.

Equites Legionis:
Each legion had an attached unit of cavalry of probably 120 men. In the later empire the number is thought to have risen to around 760. It is not certain whether these units had an overall commanderapart form that of the legion. If it did, the post was probably filled by a centurio or perhaps an optio.

Equites Singulares:
The Emperor and the provincial governors had cavalry contingents as body guards. Those protecting the Emperor were called equites singulares Augusti. This was the cavalry equivalent of the Praetorian Guard.

Troop Types

Light Armored Cavalry
As seen in the above illustration. In use since the start of the Empire, they were more mobile than the heavily armored troops. made use of a lance, javelins and sword. They were effective at scouting, patrols, guarding the flanks and pursuing and cutting down a fleeing enemy. I don't know their name in Latin, and I am not sure if anyone does.

Conttarii:
These heavily armored troop types were created under the reign of Trajan probably to counter the cavalry of the Sarmatian people. They carried the heavy lance (contus) which was developed from the Sarmations.

Cataphractii or Clibanarii:
These are 2 different words describing the same troops or possibly 2 types of heavy-armored cavalry. Completely armored from head to toe, this type was developed by eastern civilizations to counter the use of arrows. These troops appeared in Roman service probably under the reign of Hadrian (117-138AD).

Sagittarii:
The favored recruiting grounds for these horse archers were Crete, Vyrenaica Levant, Numidia, Thrace.

Cavalry Ranks
Note: This list is not complete. Though, it does contain the principle ranks and titles.

Praefectus Equitum: in overall command of an ala. Early in the empire this commander was a non-roman from the tribe of which his particular ala was composed. By the late 1st century AD the post was filled by a roman of equestrian status.

Decurio: in command of a turma

Officers below the rank of decurio were the prinipales and the immunes.

Prinipales were officers who could command small units of men and received higher pay than the common soldiers.

Vexillarius: in charge of carrying the vexillum, or battle flag. He was the highest ranked member of the immunes.

Imaginifer: carried a sculptural image of the emperor on a pole.

Cornicularius: secretary to the senior officer.

Duplicarius: 2nd in command to the decurio.

Sesquiplicarius: 3rd in command to the decurio.

Immunes received no extra pay, but they were exempt from certain the less desirable chores in the army.

Curator: the accountant.

Custos Armorum: custodian of the armor.

Actarius 2nd in command of the clerical and administration staff.

Strator a messenger.

Librarius a clerk.

Beneficiarius an assistant to the praefectus.

References:
1. The Cavalryman, by Peter Connolly
2. The Roman Cavalry, by Karen R. Dixon
3. Auxilia of the Roman Imperial Army, by G. L. Cheesman
4. Roman Auxiliary Cavalryman: AD 14-193, by Nic Fields
5. Late Roman Cavalryman AD 236-565, by Simon MacDowall

Auxiliary Infantry Units and Rank

2009-06-25T21:53:00.000-06:00

The Roman legion was primarily a heavy infantry force. The roles of missile troops, cavalry and light infantry were filled by the non-Roman tribes more suited for those tasks. During Caesar's time non-citizen auxilia were not a regular part of the army. Germans, Gauls, and other warlike tribes were called upon when they were needed. In Augustus' reign the auxiliary units were incorporated into the army on a permanent basis. The main inducement for a non-Roman to enlist was the prospect of obtaining citizenship for him and his family. Citizenship was valued because it greatly improved a man's social standing and gave him the full protection of Roman law. An auxiliary soldier would serve 25 years before being honorably discharged and granted citizenship. Occasionally, the heroism of an entire unit would convince the emperor to award them citizenship before the end of their term. Auxiliary equipment was varied, but was generally of a similar quality to that of the legions. It seems, the legions often looked down on auxiliaries as inferiors, though they played an indispensable role in manning the empire's frontiers.

Auxilia Infantry Units
Cohors consisted of 500 men.
Cohors Milliaria was 1,000 men.
Numerus was probably 300.

Auxilia Infantry Ranks
The commanders were most commonly Romans, though tribal leaders also could hold these positions.

Tribunus Cohortis
The overall commander of the non-citizen auxilia infantry.

Centuriones
Roman citizen centurions were put in command of the non-roman troops.

Princepales
Non commisioned officers appointed to aid the officers.

Immunes
Soldiers with extra responsabilities, and had immunity from the less desireable duties.

Milites

Common foot soldiers.

References:
1. Greece and Rome at War, by Peter Connolly
2. Auxilia of the Roman Imperial Army, by G. L. Cheesman
3. The Complete Roman Army, by Adrian Goldsworthy

Legion Deployment

2009-06-25T21:48:00.000-06:00

LATE 1ST CENTURY
(1) IX Hispana At York
(2) XX Valeria and II Adiutrix at Chester
(3) II Augusta at Caerleon
(4) XXII Primigenia and X Gemina at Nijmegen
(5) VI Victrix at Neuss
(6) XXI Rapax at Bonn
(7) XIV Gemina at Mainz
(8) I Adiutrix at Mainz
(9) VIII Augusta at Strasbourg
(10) XI Claudia at Windish
(11) XV Apollinaris at Carnuntum
(12) XIII Gemina at Poetovio
(13) VII Claudia at Viminiacum
(14) V Macedonica at Oescus
(15) I Italica at Novae
(16) V Alaudae near the Danube
(17) IV Ferrata Firma at Burnum
(18) XVI Flavia Firma at Satala
(19) XII Fulminata at Meltitene
(20) VI Ferrata at Samosata
(21) IV Sythica at Cyrhus
(22) III Gallica at Danube near Damascus
(23) X Fretensis at Jerusalem
(24) XXII Deiotariana at Alexandria
(25) III Cyrenaica at Coptus near Luxor
(26) III Augusta at Ammaedara near Tebessa
(27) VII Geminav at Leon

EARLY 2nd-EARLY 3RD CENTURIES
(1) VI Victrix at York
(2) XX Valeria Victrix at Chester
(3) II Augusta at Caerleon
(4) XXX Ulpia at Xanten
(5) I Minerva at Bonn
(6) XXII Primigenia at Mainz
(7) VIII Augusta at Strasbourg
(8) III Italica at Regensburg
(9) II Italica at Lauriacum
(10) X Gemina at Vienna
(11) XIV Gemina at Curnuntum
(12) I and II Adiutrix at Budapest
(13) IV Flavia and VII Macedonica Cladia at Viminacium
(14) V Macedonica at Potaissa
(15) XIII Gemina Apulum
(16) I Italica at Oescus
(17) XI Claudia on Danube
(18) XV Apollinaris in Cappadocia
(19) XII Fulmiata at in Cappadocia
(20) I Parthia in Mesopotamia
(21) II Parthia in Mesopotamia
(22) IV Italica in Mesopotamia
(23) IV Scythia in Syria Propper
(24) XVI Flavia Firma in Syria Propper
(25) III Gallica in Phoenice
(26) X Fretensis in Palestine
(27) VI Ferrata in Palestine
(28) III Cyrenaica in Arabia
(29) II Trajana In Egypt
(30) III Augusta at Ammaedara near Tebessa
(31) VII Gemina at Leon

References:
1.The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire : From the First Century A.D. to the Third, by Edward Luttak
2. Roman Army from Caesar to Trajan, by Michael Simkins

Praetorian Guard

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While in Rome, the Praetorians carried no armor or shield. They rather wore a common tunic and carried a sword. On the battlefield they were outfitted in much the same way as the legions, though one would expect their eqipment to be more ornate than other units. Praetorians seen on Trajan's Column appear with the standard legionary rectangular scuta, but other sculptures depict them with the oval Republican era variety. Some historians believe the oval shield was relegated as parade eqipment, a symbol of Rome's glorious past. Yet, such shields were used for years by the legions. I don't see why this battle-tested piece of hardware wouldn't be suitable for actual fighting.

The Praetor was the title of the consul who was the supreme commander in the army. Originally, the Praetorian Guard was a casual term used to describe a collection of elite cohorts, whose function was to guard their commander. Units such as these appeared in the late Republic. After defeating Anthony, the new (and first) emperor, Augustus Caesar, formalized the Praetorian units. There were probably nine cohorts comprised of around 500 men each, just as with the regular legions. Before 2 BC each individual cohort was lead by a tribune of equestrian rank. Afterwards, Augustus created two posts for overall command of the guard. These 2 men in charge were called Praetorian Prefects. The Emperor Tiburius further consolidated the Praetorian Guard by constructing the great Praetorian Camp in Rome. This act so impressed the Guard, that the scorpion became a common symbol on Praetorian shields, armor, etc. (Tiberius' birthsign was scorpio). The primary role of the Praetorians was to act as a bodyguard to the emperor and serve as a police force in the city. However, they did take to the battlefield when the need arose.

Common missconceptions about the Praetorians
1. When illustrated Praetorian Guardsmen are often depicted with blue shields. Yet, there is no direct evidence to for this. Shield blazons on a relief housed in the Louvre are thought to be Praetorian. They include moon and star shapes, which has lead many artists to assume the shield was painted black or blue (to represent the night sky).

2. In film and toys Praetorians often appear in black costume. There is nothing to support this color choice. It is merely an artistic convention distinguish them from the legionaries (and make them look cool!). Tacitus’ description of the 69 AD battle of Cremona implies that Praetorian shield was all that distinguished his appearance from a legionary. (Tacitus, Histories)

References:
1. The Praetorian Guard, by Boris Rankov

Legion List

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Legions were given titles in several ways. Their name could be based on the province where they won honor (eg: V Macedonica). It could reflect the name of their commander. Or it could denote a specific deed or quality.(ex: X Equestris) These titles could be changed over time or they could have new titles added on.

Notes on specific titles: Gemina, Latin for "twin," was given to a legion that was composed of 2 or more pre-existing legions. Augusta is Latin for "venerable" or "majestic." Octavion was re-named using this same title when he became emperor. Pia fidelis, meaning "loyal," was awarded to Legions which remained loyal to the Emperor during times of revolt. Victrix meaning "victorious," was given after winning a note-worthy comflict.

I-IV The Consular Legions of the Republic. These were not part of any standing army. They were formed quickly when the need arose and then disbanded once the threat was gone.

I Augusta, Germanica Probably originally raised by Caesar. Took part in civil war of 69AD Disbanded in 70 AD for collusion with a rebel

I Adiutrix pia fidelis "Assistant" Raised by Nero in 66 or 67 from sailors at Misenum to supplement the legionary strength 54-68AD Took part in the civil war of 69 AD, in Dacian wars under the command of Domitian and then Traian and probably in the Parthian war in 114-117

I Italica Raised by Nero probably in 66AD for the planned Caspian expedition. Took part in the civil war of 69 AD.

I Macriana liberatrix Raised by L. Clodius Macer, the rebellious governor of Africa in 68 AD (during the reign of Nero). Disbanded by Emperor Galba in 68 or 69AD.

I Flavia Minervia Raised by Domitian in 83. Took part in Trajan's Dacian Wars (101-102, 105-106) and the Parthian campaign (162-166) of the co-emperor L. Verus

I Parthica Raised by Septimius Severus to fight the Parthians 193AD-211

II Adiutrix pia fidelis"Assistant" Raised by Vespasian to supplement the legionary strength.

II Augusta Raised by Augustus. Took part in the invasion of Britain in 43AD

II Italica pia Raised by Marcus Aurelius to fight Marcomanni 165AD

II Parthica Raised by Severus to fight the Parthians 193AD-211

II Traiana fortis "Strong" Raised by Trajan around 105AD. Named after himself. (the Romans did not use the letter "J")

III Augusta pia fidelis Probably raised by Octavian in 41 or 40BC. Split up by Emperor Gordianus III in 238 for supporting its rebellious legate. Reinstated by Emperor Valerian in 253AD

III Cyrenaica Named for the province where it gained distinction. Took part in Trajan's Parthian War 115-117 AD

III Gallica Formed by Caesar in 48-42 BC Took part in Gallic and Civil War. Took part in the civil war of 69 AD for Vespasian. Disbanded for sedition against Emperor Elagabalus in 218AD or 219AD. Reconstituted by Emperor Severus Alexander.

III Italica concors "United" Raised by Marcus Aurelius to fight Marcomanni 165AD

III Parthica Raised by Severus to fight the Parthians 193AD-211

IV Macedonica Raised by Caesar in 48 BC Gained distinction in Macedonia. Took part in the civil war of 69 AD. Disbanded by Vespasian, replaced by Legio IV Flavia firma

IV Flavia firma Raised by Vespasian in 70AD from former Legio IV Macedonica. Took part in Trajan's Dacian Wars (101-102, 105-106AD)

IV Scythia Raised before 30BC possibly by M. Antony. Probably took part in the campaigns against Scythians in 29-27 BC

V Alaudae "The Larks" Raised by Caesar in 52BC from native people of Transalpine Gaul. Reconstituted by M. Antony in 44 BC. Took part in the civil war of 69 AD supported Emperor Vitellius. Probably disbanded by Emperor Vespasian or later by Emperor Domitian

V Macedonica Raised in 43BC or by Octavian in 41BC or 40BC. Gained distinction in Macedonia. Under Vespasian in the Jewish War. Took part in the Parthian campaign (162-166AD) of co-emperor L. Verus.

VI Ferrata fidelis constans "Iron-sides" Raised by Caesar in 52 BC in Cisalpine Gaul. Reconstituted in 44BC. Taken over by Antony in 43BC and later by Octavian as part of Octavian's army stationed in Syria. Took part in the civil war of 69AD and marched as part of Flavian army on Italy. Supported emperor Septimius Severus against Pescennius Niger

VI Victrix Served under Caesar in Egypt and Augustus at Actium

VII Macedonica Claudia pia fidelis Raised in 59 BC or earlier. Reconstituted by Octavian in 44BC. Remained loyal to emperor Claudius in the revolt of Scribonianus, governor of Dalmatia. Took part in the civil war of 69AD supporting emperor Vespasian.

VII Hispana (later Gemina) Raisedy Galba in 68AD. in Spain (nicknamed Galbiana) Participated in the civil war of 69AD: accompanied emperor Galba to Rome. Later fought for emperorVespasian. Reconstituted in 70AD, perhaps incorporating soldiers of Legio I and given name Gemina

VIII Augusta Mutinensis Reformed by Augustus in 43BC. Gained distinction in Mutina in 43BC.

VIII Augusta First raised by Caesar in 59 BC or earlier. Fought in Gallic War and Civil War. Disbanded in 46BC Reconstituted by Octavian in 44BC. Operated victoriously under the command of Emperor Augustus.

IX Hispana Either raised by Caesar and disbanded in 46 or 45BC, or a new formation by Octavian in 41 or 40BC. Took part in the war against Tacfarinas. Participated in the invasion of Britain in 43. Suffered heavy losses in Boudiccas rebellion. Legion survived at least into the mid-120sAD but its exact end is unknown.

X Equestris "Mounted" or "Knightly." Raised by Caesar in 59 BC or earlier. (His favorite) Named for the time when they posed as cavalry when Caesar met Ariovistus, a German king. Disbanded after rebeling against Octavian before he was emperor. The legoion may have been mixed into Leg. X Gemina.

X Fretensis Raised by Octavian 41 or 40BC. Named after the naval battle between Octavian and Sextus Pompeius in Frectum Siculum (the straits of Messina). Took part in the Jewish War.

X Gemina Formed from two half strength legions

XI Claudia pia fidelis Probably raised by Caesar in 58BC Disbanded in 46BC. Remained loyal to emperor Claudius in the revolt of Scribonianus, governor of Dalmatia (42AD). Supported Vespasian in the civil war of 69AD. Helped suppress the rebellion of Julius Civilis in 70AD.

XII Fulminata "Lighting-hurler" Raised by Caesar in 58BC. Reconstituted in 44 or 43BC. Served with Antony in the east. Fought in Armenia and Judea. Took part in the failed invasion of Armenia in 62AD and the legion was disgraced by capitulation to the Parthians at Rhandeia. Later fought in the Jewish War and may have temporarily lost its eagle in the retreat from Jerusalem 66AD. Took part in the campaigns of Marcus Aurelius against Quadi in 170s AD.

XIII Gemina pia fidelis Raised by Caesar in 57BC. Disbanded in 46BC. Reconstituted by Octavion in 41 or 40BC. Took part in Trajans second Dacian War and possibly also at the first.

XIV Gemina Martia Victrix Raised by Caesar raised in 57BC Disbanded in 46-25BC. Took part in the invasion of Britain in 43AD and in the suppressing of the rebellion of Boudicca in 60-61AD. Took part in the campaign against Iulius Civilis in 70AD. Supported the rebellion of Saturninus in 89. A detachment took part in the Dacian Wars of emperor Trajan in 101-102AD and 105-106AD.

XV Apollinaris Raised by Augustus in 41 or 40BC. Named after the god. Fought in the Jewish War in 66-70AD. A detachment took part in the Dacian Wars of emperor Trajan in 101-102AD and 105-106AD.

XV Primigenia Formed by Claudius along with Legio XV Primigenia perhaps in 39AD. Took part on the march of emperor Vitellius to Rome in 69AD.

XVI Flavia firma "Steadfast to the Flavians" Raised by Vespasian in 70AD. Took part in Traian's Parthian War (114-117AD).

XVI Gallica Raised by Octavion in 41 or 40BC. Part of the legion took part in Vitellius' invasion of Italy in 69AD. In 69 remainder of the legion surrendered to the rebel Julius Civilis. Subsequently, the disgraced legion was disbanded by emperor Vespasian and reconstituted as Legio XVI Flavia firma.

XVII, XVIII, XIX Raised by Octavian in 41 or 40BC or possibly after Actium. Wiped out by germans in the Teutoburg Forest 9AD Under the command of P. Quintctilius Varus. These legionary numbers were never used again. The eagle standards of Leg. XIX and one of the others were recovered by Germanicus in 15-16AD and the remaining one in 42AD.

XX Valeria victrix Raised by Augustus around 40BC. Remianed loyal to Emperor Domitian in the revolt of L. Antonius Saturninus in 89AD. "Valiant and Victorious" in Boudicca's revolt in Britain.

XXI Rapax "Greedy" raised by Octavian in 41 or 40BC or possibly after Actium. Took part in the invasion of Italy of emperor Vitellius. Fought against Julius Civilis in 70AD. Supported the rebellion of L. Antonius Saturninus in 89AD. Annihilated, probably in 92AD in battle against Sarmatians.

XXII Deiotariana Formed by King Deiotarus of Galatia, trained and equipped on the Roman model. Incorporated into the Roman army by Augustus probably before 25BC. The legion may have been destroyed in the Jewish Revolt of 132-135AD

XXII Primigenia pia fidelis After the Roman godess, Fortuna Primigenia. Caligula raised by by emperor Claudius in 39AD for his intended German campaign at Mogontiacum. A detachment took part in emperpor Vitellius' invasion of Italy in 69AD. In 69AD after a siege at Vetera remainder of the legion surrendered to the rebel Julius Civilis and the legion disappeared from army lists.

XXX Ulpia victrix Raised around 105AD by Trajan to fight the Dacians. Participated in the Second Dacian War (105-106 AD).

References:
1.The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire : From the First Century A.D. to the Third, by Edward Luttak
2. Roman Army from Caesar to Trajan, by Michael Simkins

Legionary Rank

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Note: As it is rather difficult for historians to precisely establish the relationships between all the varied ranks in the Roman army, this list contains only the principle ranks and titles.

Legatus Legionis The overall legionary commander. This post was filled by a man from the senatorial class picked by the emperor. He usually had previous military experience in command as a tribune. Typically, the man filling this post used it only a tem[porary step in his political career. So, unfortunately, it was very possible for a legion to be commanded by a legate who had little interest or ability in military matters.

Tribuna Laticlavius Each legion had 6 military tribunes who were the sons of senators or other equestrians (knights). Normally the tribunes divided themselves into 3 pairs and took turns commanding in 2 month intervals. This post was used as a way to train for later being a legate.

Praefectus CastorumThis man was responsible for maintenance of the legionary fortress, supplies, munitions, equipment, etc. This post was usually filled by a man in his 50s or 60s who had been promoted from the rank of Primus Pilus. When the legate and senior tribune were away, this man took command.

Primus Pilus or Primipilus This was the centurion of the first cohort. He was the senior centurion of the legion.

Centuriones (chohort I) These were the other 4 centiurions of the 1st cohort. Along with the Pimus Pilus they were know as the Prima Ordines

Centuriones (chohorts II-X)There was one centurion for each century. Most of these men had previously served in the legion as soldiers or princepales, though some were appointed the position because of their status in the equestrian class

Optiones
2nd or sometimes 3rd in command of a century because some Centuries had a 2nd Centurian then an Optio. The Optio carried a staff called a hastile - with an ornamental knob at top. In battle he was stationed at the rear of the advancing unit.

Tesserarius
3rd in command of a Century. The tesserarius was traditionally responsible for commanding the sentries. The name comes from the tessera, the tablet that the night's password was distributed throught the camp (castra). Some centuries had more than one. They were responsible for the regular duties of the milites.

Princepales
These were the non commisioned officers appointed to aid the officers.

Immunes
Any soldiers who were exempt from the less desireable duties (such as latrine duty and digging ditches I presume) were called immunes. They had this special status because they held extra responsabilities such as being among the medical personnel, a musician, an instructor, etc.

Vexillarius: in charge of carrying the vexillum, or battle flag. He was the highest ranked member of the immunes

Imaginifer: carried a sculptural image of the emperor on a pole.

Milites: The "enlisted men" of the legion: common soldiers.

References:
1. The Legionary, by Peter Connolly
2. Roman Legionary 58 BC-AD 69, by Ross Cowan
3. Greece and Rome at War, by Peter Connolly

Legion Composition

2009-06-25T17:42:00.000-06:00

We refer to the roman armies as legions, but in the original latin, they were called legio, meaning a levy. They were named as such because there was no standing army in the early Republic. Landed citizens were levied to form an army when the need arose and were later disbanded. Until the general, Marius, made reforms to this sytem (100s BC), the poorest section of the Roman population was not allowed to join except in grave emergencies.

Republican era Legion
At optimum strength the legion of the Republic had 4,200 men. Each legio was made up of ten subdivisions of 420 men, known as a cohors ("cohort" in English). Each cohors consisted of one maniple of 60 triari, one of 120 princips, one of 120 hastati, and one of 120 velites. Each maniple was divided into 2 centuriae ("centuries" in English). Each comanded by a centurio, (centurion). These may have been divided further into units of 6 men called contuburnia

Imperial Roman Legion
Commanded by the legatus, the Legio at full strength was comprised of 6,000 men. It was divided into 10 cohortes (cohorts). Each cohors was made up of 480 men, with the exception of the First Cohort which had 960. A cohors was probably under the command of the most senior centurion of its centuries. Cohortes were divided into six 6 centuriae (centuries). Each centuria held 80 men and was led by the centurio (centurion). The centuries of the First Cohort held 160 men. The centuriae were divided into 10 contubernium. These were groups of 8 men which shared a tent. In addition there was a 120 man cavalry unit attached to the legion and possibly as many as 60 artillery pieces.

1 Legio = 10 cohortes
1 Cohors = 6 centuriae
1 Centuria = 10 contubernia
1 Contubernia = 8 men

References:
1. The Legionary, by Peter Connolly
2. Roman Legionary 58 BC-AD 69, by Ross Cowan
3. Greece and Rome at War, by Peter Connolly

Celtic Shields

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The Celtic and German tribes of the 5th century BC – 2nd century AD appear to have used very similar shields in battle. These shields were made in a variety of shapes in sizes. Archaeological (actual finds) and representational (art such as sculpture) evidence suggests that warriors on foot favored a tall shield, which offered great protection to the body. Cavalry used this tall shield or a smaller round shield. The tall body-shield was roughly a meter long (4-5 ft.). When resting on the ground it would have come up to just above the warrior’s waist. The shield’s shape could be any of a number of variations of an oblong form (see image below). The shield board was comprised of solid wood or vertical planks, covered in hide. The hide protected the wood from warping in the rain, and it prevented splintering when struck in battle. Round shields were often used by cavalrymen. Attached to the center of the shield face was the boss. This hollow object provided room for the user to hold the horizontal metal or wooden hand-grip. The boss protected the hand and could be used offensively to punch the enemy. A wooden boss was often covered on the front by an iron plate. A typically all-metal boss was made of iron. It appeared as a hemisphere with circular flange or as an oblong shape with butterfly wing-shaped flange.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXAMPLES

The celtic shield was primarily made of organic materials, wood and hide. As a result, direct archaeological evidence is very limited. Ian Stead composed a list of all known shield parts found in Britain. (#145;Many more Iron Age shields from Britain’, The Antiquaries Journal). Here is a listing of major finds from across Europe:

Witham Shield 400-300 BC (fig. A)
Discovered in 1826 in the River Witham, near the village of Washingborough, which is outside the city of Lincoln. Length: 109.22 cm. Currently housed in the British Museum. This is not the whole shield, rather it is a thin bronze sheet which was mounted on a wood backing. A leather stylized boar once was once riveted to the face. The central boss was decorated with pieces of Mediterranean coral. The delicate nature of this shield indicates that it was not meant for battle. (James)
See detailed photo on the British Museum website.

Chertsey Shield, 400-200 BC (fig. B)
Discovered in 1985 in Chertsey, Surrey, England. Currently housed in the British Museum. Length: 83.6 cm, Width: 46.8 cm, Weight: 2.75 kg. The body of the shield is made entirely of bronze. The handle is made of ash. (Stead 1991; Ritchie)
See detailed photo on the British Museum website.

Battersea Shield, 350-50 BC (fig. C)
Discovered in the River Thames at Battersea Bridge, London, England. Currently housed in the British Museum. This is a facing of multiple sheets of broze that were riveted to a now rotted shield-board. Decorated with glass inlay. Length: 77.7 cm. As with the Witham and Chertsey shields this apparently was a ceremonial, rather than battle shield. (Stead, 1985)
See detailed photo on the British Museum website.

Hjortspring shields, 4th-2nd century BC (fig. D)
Discovered in a bog on the island of Als, near Hjortspring farm. The site is on the modern border of Germany and Denmark. Remains of up to 80 wooden shields were found. 50 were able to be re-assembled. These shields appear to be an offering of captured enemy equipment originating from the western Baltic. Although these objects did not come from a Celtic area, the shields and weapons found here display an influence of Celtic technology. The wooden shields were preserved by the anaerobic conditions of the bog. All are similarly shaped. They are rectangular in a range of proportions, all with shallow curved sides and corners. Length: varies among the shields from 61 - 88 cm, Width: 22 - 52 cm. The largest shield is 88 x 50 cm. The smallest is 66 x 29 cm. The shields are thickest at the middle, in most cases 1 - 1.8 cm. The edges get thinner at .3 - .6 cm. The majority of the shield boards were carved from a single piece of wood. Others were formed of 2 or (more rarely 3) planks glued together with resin (sometimes with the addition of tennons). The shield bosses are of wood. They are mostly alder and lime, but some are harder woods. It is not known if they originally had a hide or cloth covering. (Rosenburg)

Votive British shields, 2nd-1st century BC (fig. E)
In 1988 the British Museum acquired a collection of 22 miniature bronze shields. 6 of the 22 have decorated faces. The longest shield is 8.7 cm. At their purchase the shields were unprovenanced. However, the detective work of arcaheologist, Ian Stead, has since confirmed that these are indeed from a hoarde in Salisbury, England. These objects were probably votive offerings to the gods. These miniatures seem to realistically represent shields of actual use. As evidence of this, their form matches the shape of a near complete set of bronze edge bindings found at Spettisbury, Wilford Down and in a burial at Mill Hill, Deal. (Green)(Stead, 1991)(Parfitt)

Note: Ian Stead wrote about his investigation into these shields in his book, The Salisbury Hoard.

La Tène shields, 250 BC (fig. F)
Fragments of three oak plank Celtic shields were discovered at the lake at La Tène on the north side of Lake Neuchâtel in Switzerland. The find was made in the late 1800s. The now dissintigrated shield remains are housed in the Neuchâtel Museum, Switzerland. When found, they were roughly 1.1 meters long, and 1.2 cm thick at the center. All three were made of oak. Two of the three had a wooden boss. The third shield’s boss was missing. (Connolly)

Clonoura shield (pictured at left)
In the 1960s a small plain Iron Age shield was found in a bog in Clonoura, Co. Tipperary, Ireland. The shield board is made of thin sheets of wood, covered on the face and back in leather. The edging is also leather. The umbo is wood, covered in leather. It is 55 x 35 cm. (Moody) (Raftery). It is now held in the National Museum of Ireland, Dublin. (Cunliffe).

DECORATION

The shield face was decorated with floral, geometric and figural designs. The designs were probably painted or attached as separate pieces of leather or metal. The shield found at Mill Hill, Deal, UK was accompanied my small metal decorations, which would have been mounted to the shield board.(Parfitt) Various animal decorations made of sheet bronze were found at Tintignac, a religious site in ancient Gaul. These included 2 boar heads, 1 horse head, and some detached legs of an identified animal. They are thought to be meant as the top to a military standard, but they may also have been intended to decorate a shield. (Maniquet) The Witham Shield shows traces of a boar design that would have been attached as a separate sheet of metal (now missing).

The Roman Arch of Orange in modern France depicts a variety of designs applied to Celtic shields. One might expect these sculpted designs to be accurate representations, as they could have been based on captured arms and equipment. However, the designs do not mesh well with the Celtic La Tène style. The image below illustrates a few. German shield blazons have not been recorded well at all. The Roman representations that have survived (Column of Marcus Aurelius, coinage, sarcophagi, etc.) are very obviously impressionistic depictions of generic ‘barbarian’ shields, rather than accurate renderings.

References:
1. Connolly, Peter, Greece and Rome at War. Greenhill Books, 1998.

2. Cunliffe, Barry, The Ancient Celts

3. Green, Miranda, Celtic Art. Sterling Publishing Company, New York, 1997

4. James, Simon and Rigby, V., Britain and the Celtic Iron Age The British Museum Press, London, 1997.

5. Maniquet, Christophe. Discovery at Tintignac (web)

6. Moody, Theodore. A New History of Ireland. Oxford University Press. 2005

7. Parfitt, Keith. Iron Age Burials, from Mill Hill, Deal British museum Press, London 1995.

8. Raftery, B. “La Tène in Ireland: Problems of Origin and chronology” in Veröff Vorgeschicht Seminars Marburg, Sonderband 2. Publisher: Philipps-Universität Marburg 1984.

9. Ritchie, W.F, ‘The army, weapons and fighting’, Part II of The Celtic World (Edited by Miranda Green) Routledge, London, 1995.

10. Rosenberg, Gustav; Knud Jessen, Fr. Johannessen, Hjortspringfundet, Volume 3, Issue 1, With English Summary, København, 1937

11. Stead, I.M., The Battersea Shield The British Museum Press, London, 1985

12. Stead, I.M., ‘Many more Iron Age shields from Britain’, The Antiquaries Journal, 71. 1991